Transobturator Slings
Subsequent to the development of TVT it was recognized that transobturator tape (TOT) was a viable method for correction of SUI. Since Ulmsten’s initial article in 1996 there has been extensive acceptance of the various midurethral sling technologies. In Europe, as of 2005, approximately 83.9% of all procedures are midurethral-type synthetic slings, of which 26.9% are with TOT (de Tayrac and Medelenat, 2004). Since the initial description of the TOT approach, numerous other similar TOT approaches have been noted.
The goal of the minimally invasive surgical procedure should be to provide acceptable long-term efficacy comparable to that of more standard methods as well as a relatively low incidence of long-term complications, again compared with these “gold standard” procedures. Retropubic midurethral slings have demonstrated robust outcomes in both primary and recurrent SUI as well as in women with MUI and in those with ISD. Delorme (2001) initially described the placement of synthetic polypropylene mesh using the TOT approach. The technique was described as being relatively facile and associated with fewer complications than retropubic approaches. It was also thought that the procedure did not require cystoscopy.
Much of the understanding of the function of the TOT slings arises from that which has evolved from TVT-type procedures. Perineal ultrasonography has been used to assess the function of the TVT in patients who undergo successful incontinence procedures. In those individuals, a functional kinking of the urethra during stress events is noted to occur when the tape is placed at the midurethra (Lo et al, 2004). In relatively long-term follow-up (3 years), 92% of patients had ultrasonic demonstration of tape at the midurethra and evidence of urethra kinking that caused the “urethral knee angle.” Of these patients, 92% were continent. Of the patients who had tape location either at the posterior urethra or bladder neck, only three of five (60%) were continent, presumably because of lack of a fulcrum-like effect at the midurethra. These ultrasound studies appear to underscore the importance of the midurethral location and also the ability of the TOT to accomplish this localization (Lo et al, 2001, 2004).
Similarly, Minaglia and colleagues (2004), using a variant of the TOT (ObTape), showed no difference in resting urethral angulation after tape insertion. These authors, however, did notice that there was a statically significant difference preoperatively and postoperatively in urethral angle with straining. They also noted that most women had persistent urethral hypermobility after the procedure, and they concluded that correction of hypermobility was not necessary to achieve continence. Their results documented that 90.4% of patients with documented hypermobility were continent, whereas only 50% of the patients without hypermobility were continent. They concluded that a persistently positive Q-tip test was predictive of a successful outcome. They found that concomitant prolapse surgery or previous incontinence surgery had no effect on outcome.
Surgical Anatomy
For successful implantation of the TOT, an understanding of the surgical anatomy of the pelvic floor, including the surrounding neurovascular structures, pelvic and perineal anatomy, and the obturator foramen, is crucial to provide surgical success and minimize morbidity. Three reviews have demonstrated with cadaveric dissection the importance of landmarks and implantation technique for the success of the TOT procedure.
Bonnet and colleagues (2005) performed the “inside-out” TOT technique as described by de Leval (2003) in 13 cadavers to determine tape path and proximity to surrounding structures. Cadaveric dissection was extended from the femoral triangle medially through the obturator externus muscle and adductor longus to the inferior pubic ramus. The perineal space was then entered, and the pubic bone was sectioned to evaluate the relationship of the tape to various structures. Finally, the subfascial anterior perineum and pelvis were dissected to analyze the tape path fully. These authors demonstrated several significant points in their cadaveric dissection. They noted that the tape never penetrated the adductor longus muscle, thus being a safe distance from neurovascular structures. In approximately 70% of studied cases the implanted material did traverse the adductor magnus, adductor brevis, and gracilis muscles during its path into the pelvis.
At the level of the obturator foramen the tape was noted to traverse both the obturator externus and internus muscles as well as the obturator membrane. The relationship between the inserted tape and the obturator nerve showed that the closest proximity of the two was 22 mm with a distance as great as 30 mm (mean 26.2 ± 2 mm) at the level of the obturator foramen. The authors emphasized that an individual’s thighs in hyperflexion and the rotational trajectory of the helical passer associated with this positioning ensured the separation of the insertion tool from the nerve during the actual implantation of the material. They also noted that regional vascular anatomy (anterior branch of the obturator) was protected from injury by the bony architecture of the inferior pubic ramus.
More medially, the tape entered the anterior compartment of the ischiorectal fascia, in the area of the levator ani membrane and obturator internus muscle. The tape remained outside the pelvic space and did not penetrate the levator ani muscular group. The tape remained above the perineal membrane at all times. The dorsal nerve of the clitoris was found to be consistently caudal to the perineal membrane and thus protected from injury during needle passage. These relationships were found to be consistently confirmed in each cadaveric specimen, and thus Bonnet and colleagues believed that these observations represented highly reproducible anatomic positioning and therefore concluded that the TOT technique is safe.
Delmas and associates (2003) utilized the “outside-in” approach on 10 female cadavers, again detailing the relevant pelvic anatomy in relationship to the tape insertion path. In this study, dissection demonstrated that the tape always consistently passed 4 cm opposite and caudal to the obturator canal, again confirming the relative safety of neurovascular structures. They also demonstrated that the tape traverses a plane between the perineal and levator antimusculature but above the neurovascular pedicle of the pudendum. They also noted that in the pelvic component of their dissections, the tape courses medial to the obturator plexus. They concluded that tunneling passage anteriorly risks injury to the bladder and passage in the posterior dissection demonstrated a risk of vaginal perforation.
A third study by Whiteside and Walters (2004) further evaluated the obturator anatomy in relationship to tape insertion in six female cadavers. These authors found that the mesh, on average, passed 2.4 cm inferior and medial to the obturator canal and that both divisions of the obturator (anterior and posterior) were 3.4 and 2.8 cm, respectively, separated from the path of the insertion tool. They also noted that the insertion tool passed within, on average, 1.1 cm proximity to the medial branch of the obturator vessels. These authors concluded that a risk of injury does exist and that appropriate caution should be exercised.
Operative Technique
Operative technique varies with insertion method. Various procedures using similar insertion methods represent relatively similar technique (Fig. 73–12). Not only does implantation technique affect overall success of the sling, but also the type of mesh or tape implanted has a substantive effect on overall results. Mesh properties have been shown to have a significant effect on local inflammatory response and ingrowth of local fibrous tissues (collagen, neovascularity) and subsequent integration of these tapes into host tissues. These differences in properties are believed to affect the risk of erosion and subsequent infection and other vaginal and local complications. There are intrinsic differences between the various meshes that have been used for the TOT approach. The ObTape and UraTape meshes are polypropylene material but are small pore, knitted, and thermally bonded with an approximately 15-mm silicone component that is immediately suburethral in location after implantation. A second-generation obturator tape developed by the Mentor Corporation is known as the Aris TOT; it has a larger 200-µm pore size that allows improved tissue ingrowth with less encapsulation. The ObTryx, TVT-O, Monarc, I STOP, and Urotex-TO are large-pore open knit polypropylene meshes. A unique obturator mesh is the BioArc, which, like the suprapubic variety, has a biologic graft material that is sutured on either end to the polypropylene tape. The biologic material actually occupies a suburethral position (de Leval, 2003; Delorme et al, 2003) (Table 73–17; Fig. 73–13).
Table 73–17 Devices and Descriptions (see Fig. 73–13)
Transobturator Outside-In
The patient is placed in the dorsal lithotomy position with legs in hyperflexion (120 degrees). A small vertical vaginal incision is created as with the TVT procedure over the midurethra, and dissection is carried out laterally to the ischiopubic ramus. A puncture incision is made in the obturator foramen at the level of the clitoris in the leg using the tunneler; the obturator membrane is perforated, at which point resistance is noted by the operative surgeon. Using the nondominant index finger and identifying the landmarks of ramus and the obturator internus muscle, the surgeon turns the tunneler in a medial orientation and advances it on the tip of the index finger and brings it out through the vaginal incision. Inspection is carried out at this point to exclude inadvertent penetration of the vaginal fornix or associated urinary structures. The synthetic material is then attached to the tunneler and brought out through the inner thigh stab wound. The procedure is then repeated on the contralateral side. Tension is set on the tape by passing a clamp between the tape and urethra such that a surgical clamp can be passed easily between these two structures. Excess material is then cut at the skin puncture site, and the incisions are closed according to the surgeon’s preference.
This approach is used for the following devices: ObTape, UraTape, Aris TOT, Monarc, BioArc TO, Uretex-TO, ObTryx, I STOP.
Transobturator Inside-Out
The vaginal component of the procedure is essentially the same as in the outside-in technique. Stab incisions are created approximately 2 cm superior to the horizontal line level with the urethra and 2 cm lateral to the labial folds, which will be the exit point for the helical passer. Once the device is inserted through the urethra and the upper part of the ischiopubic ramus is reached with the device, the obturator membrane is perforated sharply with scissors. The introducer is then passed at a 45-degree angle relative to the midline sagittal plane until it reaches and perforates the obturator membrane. The open side of the introducer is passed out facing the surgeon. The more distal end of the tubing is then mounted on the spiral segment of the helical passer and slipped along the open gutter of the introducer. The passer is aligned parallel to the sagittal axis and rotated so that the tip of the tubing exits the inner thigh stab incision. The tubing is then removed from the passer until the first few centimeters of the tape become externalized, and the procedure is repeated on the contralateral side. All plastic covering sheaths are then removed simultaneously from the tape while maintaining no tension on the sling itself using the technique previously described.
Results
Since the initial description by Delorme in 2001, continence rates have been reproducibly satisfactory although follow-up has, in general, been short (Table 73–18). Reported continence rates range from 80.5% to 96% on the basis of a variety of subjective (questionnaire and quality of life single-item assessment) and objective (cough stress test, uroflowmetry, physical examination) measures.
Efficacy
Efficacy analyses have included heterogeneous groups of patients, including those in whom prior procedures failed, those who had concomitant prolapse, and those with MUI. Delorme (2001) noted that 15.6% of his patients had ISD, and Mellier and colleagues (2004) diagnosed 28% of their patients with ISD. Despite these diverse populations of patients, relatively similar results were obtained. O’Connor was the first group to examine the early outcomes of the transobturator approach for SUI in women with a variable VLPP. Patients were divided into high (>60 cm H2O) or low (<60 cm H2O) VLPP groups. The odds of continued SUI after TVT-O were 12 times greater for women with VLPP less than 60 cm H2O compared with those with VLPP greater than 60 cm H2O (O’Connor et al, 2006). However, no preoperative predictors of outcomes using either clinical or urodynamic parameters were established to determine overall results of these procedures. Therefore, the effect of MUI and concomitant prolapse on surgical outcomes for this intervention are unknown. Prospective studies are needed to answer these questions.
Two nonrandomized studies have compared TOT with TVT procedures and have found no significant difference in postoperative voiding dysfunction, complications, or overall continence. There was a tendency toward more bladder injuries (10% vs. 0%) and hemorrhage (10% vs. 2%) with the suprapubic as compared with the TOT approach, but this did not reach statistical significance (de Tayrac et al, 2004; Mellier et al, 2004). Five prospective randomized studies have compared TOT with TVT procedures, ranging in follow-up from 6 to 31 months (Lee et al, 2007b; Porena et al; 2007; Zullo et al, 2007; Rinne et al, 2008; Schierlitz et al, 2008; Rechberger et al, 2009). Among two groups there were a significantly greater number of bladder perforations in patients with the retropubic approach over the TOT approach: 6.5% vs. 0% (Rechberger et al, 2009) and 7.3% vs. 0% (Schierlitz et al, 2008). Both of these groups also found the TVT to be more effective than the TOT in patients with ISD. Schierlitz and colleagues (2008) observed that at 6-month follow-up, 13% of the TOT procedure patients with ISD required further surgery whereas 0% of the TVT patients with ISD required reoperation for SUI (Schierlitz et al, 2008). Porena and associates noted that storage symptoms were significantly improved in the TOT group (still present in 24%) while persisting in 44% of the TVT group (Porena et al, 2007). A few key points are consistent between these studies: these techniques were safe, there were no long-term complications in either group, cure rates were equal (with exception of ISD group), and patients were equally satisfied.
Complications of the Transobturator Approach
Despite the minimally invasive nature of these procedures, perioperative and postoperative complications have been reported with a variety of techniques.
Bladder Injury
The anatomic variation between the inside-out (TVT-O) and outside-in (TOT) approaches has been compared, especially in regard to their association with adverse outcomes. Cadaver dissections after a TVT-O procedure noted the mean distance from the vaginal incision to the obturator membrane is 4.0 cm, and from the vaginal incision to the obturator neurovascular bundle is 6.75 cm. At the obturator membrane the closest point of the passer is only a mean distance of 2 cm from the obturator neurovascular bundle. This is the reason the curved passer is directed away from these structures and advanced. Also, an anterior branch of the obturator artery coursed medially along the exterior edge of the obturator foreman in 60% of the cadavers. They believed that this artery was protected by the exterior bony rim of the obturator foramen during an inside-out pass but could be potentially injured in an outside-in approach (Rogers et al, 2005).
Conflicting results have been reported by Zahn and associates (2007), who found that the inside-out method was significantly closer to the obturator canal. The greater proximity and distance from the ischiopubic ramus of the inside-out method was noted in all of their cadaveric dissections. Additional dissections revealed the deep external pudendal vascular structures coursing from superolateral to inferomedial over the obturator foramen, putting it at risk during the exit of an inside-out approach. No clinical correlations exist to date, suggesting that one approach is associated with a higher incidence of tunneler-related complications.
Bladder perforation appears to be the most common complication associated with any midurethral sling, with a 2% to 11% risk with the suprapubic approach. Although initial reports described the risk with the TOT approach as being negligible, the risk of bladder injury is now identified as associated with this sling insertion technique (Table 73–19) (Olsson and Kroon, 1999; Kobashi and Govier, 2003b; de Tayrac et al, 2004).
Table 73–19 Complications Associated with Transobturator Tape Techniques
| STUDY | NO. PATIENTS | ADVERSE EVENTS |
|---|---|---|
| Delorme et al, 2003 | 32 | None reported |
| de Leval, 2003 | 107 | One superficial vein thrombosis with abscess; ?(27/107) 15.9% transient thigh pain |
| Domingo et al, 2005 | 65 | Nine vaginal mesh erosion |
| Costa et al, 2004 | 183 | Three vaginal erosion; two urethral erosion; one bladder perforation; one vaginal perforation; two urethral perforation |
| de Tayrac et al, 2004 | 30 | Six uncomplicated UTI; one obturator hematoma |
| Cindolo et al, 2004 | 80 | One vaginal erosion with inguinal abscess |
| Mellier et al, 2004 | 94 | 2% intraoperative hemorrhage (300 mL); one urethral perforation |
| Queimadelos et al, 2004 | 47 | None reported |
| Krauth et al, 2005 | 604 (140 with 1-yr follow-up) | 0.3% vaginal erosion; 2.5%UTI; 0.5% bladder perforation; 0.33% vaginal perforation; 2.3% perineal pain |
| Giberti et al, 2007 | 118 | 6.4% vaginal erosion; one vaginal hematoma |
| Juma and Brito, 2007 | 117 | 3.84% vaginal erosion; 1.52% bladder perforation |
| Neuman, 2007 | 300 | 0.7% vaginal erosion; 1.3% dyspareunia |
| Al-Singary et al, 2007 | 24 | 1% perforated vaginal fornix; 12.5% vaginal erosion |
| Waltregny et al, 2008 | 102 | 1 vaginal laceration |
| Rechberger et al, 2009 | 197 | 2.5% vaginal erosion; 5.5% UTI; 5% urinary retention |
| Lee et al, 2009 | 105 | 4% dyspareunia |
UTI, urinary tract infection.
Minaglia and colleagues (2004) reported three cases of intraoperative bladder injury while performing the TOT insertion method. They identified all injuries intraoperatively because of their utilization of cystoscopy as an adjunct to all insertion procedures. All injuries were managed with catheter placement for 1 week postoperatively, and these authors noted no complications after sling removal and reinsertion at that same setting. Parekh and associates (2006) reported a case of intravesical mesh erosion after TOT placement and cystocele repair. The patient did not have cystoscopy intraoperatively. She initially presented with mesh on the left side of the bladder and then 6 months later with sling material in the right side of the bladder. She had a successful transurethral, transvaginal, and suprapubic mesh resection.
A single case of bladder laceration was reported by Cindolo and Costa that was also managed intraoperatively (Cindolo et al, 2004; Costa et al, 2004). This apparently was a more extensive injury than just trocar perforation. The tunneler passage of the outside-in obturator approach has been shown to be associated with lower urinary tract injury. To date, no case of bladder injury when performing the TOT procedure by the inside-out approach has been reported using the TVT-O (Hermieu et al, 2003; Whiteside and Walters, 2004).
Erosions, Extrusions, and Infectious Complications
Domingo and coworkers (2005) reported a relatively high incidence of vaginal erosion in their series using either the ObTape or UraTape. They attributed their erosion rate to the characteristics of the particular mesh that they utilized, with the reduced pore size and other mechanical properties of that particular material. They noted a slightly increased risk of erosion with the ObTape (15-mm silicone-coated portion)—19% versus 12% compared with the UraTape—and they believed that this was most likely due to reduction in pore size and higher degree of encapsulation. They also concluded that synthetic mesh with larger pore sizes facilitates vascular and tissue ingrowth, optimizing mesh incorporation. Tape erosion was usually managed by removal by the transvaginal approach alone or combined with the transobturator approach. They noted continence rates of 78% (despite tape removal in their series) (Domingo et al, 2005). Vaginal extrusions and erosions of up to 15% have been reported, often accompanied by obturator and ischiorectal abscesses, sinus formation, and voiding difficulty using the ObTape or UraTape (Babalola et al, 2005; Domingo et al, 2005; Deval et al, 2006; Robert et al, 2006; Al-Singary et al, 2007; Dobson et al, 2007; Giberti et al, 2007; Juma and Brito, 2007; Karsenty et al, 2007). Abscess and adductor myositis have been reported, manifesting as leg pain, difficulty ambulating, and cellulitis (Goldman, 2006; DeSouza et al, 2007; Karsenty et al, 2007; Leanza et al, 2008; Zumbé et al, 2008). Gamé and colleagues (2004) reported an infected obturator hematoma also requiring exploration and drainage. Tamussino and associates (2007) published data from the Austrian database, including 2543 transobturator cases, using 11 different tape systems. They reported greater number of complications than reported earlier in their TVT database. This included 120 intraoperative complications (4.7%), 85 cases of bleeding (3.3%), 10 vaginal perforations (0.4%), 10 bladder perforations (0.4%), and 2 urethral perforations. Bladder perforations occurred more frequently with the outside-in tape systems than the inside-out tape systems in their database. The ObTape is no longer available for construction due to the high erosion rates.
Newer, knitted polypropylene slings and many of the reports using the inside-out approach have lower incidence of erosions, extrusions, and infectious complications (Neuman, 2007; Waltregny et al, 2008; Lee et al, 2009; Rechberger et al, 2009). Neuman (2007) reported two patients with vaginal extrusion, which were repaired by covering the exposed mesh with surrounding vaginal mucosa successfully. Of the 197 women who had multifilament transobturator slings by Rechberger and associates (2009), 2.5% developed vaginal extrusions. These were all managed successfully with sling excision and closure of the vagina. Two groups reported no evidence of extrusion or erosion at 1 year (Lee et al, 2009) and 3-year (Waltregny et al, 2008) follow-up. Waltregny and associates (2008) experienced one intraoperative vaginal sulcus laceration, which was closed uneventfully. Lee and colleagues (2009) presents a modified canal TOT approach, creating a suburethral tunnel between two oblique lateral incisions in the anterior vaginal wall to decrease the incidence of vaginal extrusion through the classic single midline incision. The value of this needs to confirmed by a randomized control trial.
Voiding Dysfunction
Postoperative voiding dysfunction has been noted to occur in 0% to 20.6% of patients after a TVT procedure (Pesschers et al, 2000). The incidence after TOT procedures varies between 2.1% and 6.7%. Although clinically there seems greater voiding dysfunction associated with a TVT than the TOT there is no significant difference in postoperative voiding dysfunction between the TVT and TOT in nonrandomized studies (Mansoor et al, 2003; de Tayrac et al, 2004). Urinary retention also appears to not be significantly different. The rate of obstructive symptoms after the TOT midurethral sling varies between 1.5% and 15.6% of patients. Tsivian and colleagues (2009) assessed the effect of concomitant vagina surgery on the outcomes of TOT placement. The group without concurrent vaginal surgery had no voiding dysfunction postoperatively, whereas 7 (11%) of the group who had additional pelvic surgery experienced voiding dysfunction. Three went on to require sling lysis for obstruction. After lysis, the continence rates were similar: 82.86% and 85.2%. Yang and associates (2009) identified morphologic features associated with functional impairment after a transobturator procedure. Among 98 women at a median follow-up of 22 months, 11 women had recurrent SUI, 22 had voiding dysfunction, and 12 had worsening or de novo urgency. A resting tape distance of less than 12 mm and urethral encroachment at rest were the variables predictive of postoperative voiding dysfunction. Bladder neck funneling was associated with postoperative urgency symptoms.
Urinary obstruction is usually transient and managed with short-term intermittent catheterization, although occasionally symptoms mandate tape release. Long-term retention after TVT is a rare complication (0.6% to 3.8%) and can be expected in the TOT population as well (deTayrac et al, 2004). Removal of the tape, in most cases, improves the patient’s symptoms. There has been some anecdotal experience with downward displacement of the tape under local anesthesia to provide symptomatic relief in patients with persistent voiding dysfunction (Ozel et al, 2004). Nonetheless, the overall risk of postoperative voiding dysfunction after the TOT is relatively low.
Management of MUI by a TOT sling has been discussed by three groups (Botros et al, 2007; Paick et al, 2008; Tahseen and Reed, 2009). Botros and coworkers (2007) compared the resolution of DO, UUI, and de novo urgency between the Monarc (125), TVT (99), and SPARC (52) procedures. De novo urgency was significantly lower in the Monarc group (8% vs. 33% TVT and 17% SPARC, P = .04), yet rates of resolution of DO, UUI, and de novo DO did not differ between the three groups. Paick and associates (2008) performed 72 TVT, 22 SPARC, and 50 TOT procedures in women with MUI. There were no significant differences in SUI cure rates or general urinary incontinence cure rates between the three slings. The presence of DO during preoperative UDS was associated with a high treatment failure of UUI in all three groups. Tahseen and associates (2009) performed a TOT procedure in 58 women and found a 77% SUI cure rate and 19% SUI improvement rate. UUI was additionally cured in 43% and improved in 36% of women suffering from MUI. Twenty-one percent had persistent UUI.
Pain
Another bothersome complication, unique to the TOT approach, is that of postoperative leg pain. de Leval (2003) described 15.9% of patients with temporary groin pain that resolved after the second postoperative day. Similarly, Krauth and associates (2005) reported 14 cases (2.3%) of patients with postoperative perineal groin pain. They also noted it to be transient and responding to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents in all but 1 case. They hypothesized that the cause of the pain was either subclinical hematoma or a transient neuropathic phenomenon. They recommended that persistent leg pain that does not respond to conservative measures should prompt an investigation to exclude the possibility of erosion. Roth (2007) managed three women with persistent groin pain 3 months postoperatively in a similar fashion. Combined corticosteroids and local anesthetic was effective for pain relief, and no side effects were noted from the treatment. One case of failed sling and vaginal extrusion was reported by Mahajan and associates (2006). This patient additionally reported severe groin pain, fevers, and chills 10 days postoperatively. The tape was easily removed through the vaginal erosion, and mesh cultures were positive for Bacteroides fragilis. Complete symptom resolution occurred within 1 week of tape removal. Wolter and colleagues published a case report on recalcitrant medial thigh pain after TOT midurethral sling placement; the patient ultimately required medial thigh/TOT exploration by orthopedic surgery and sling excision (Wolter et al, 2008).
Key Points: Transobturator Midurethral Slings
Secondary or Salvage Procedure
There are limited data regarding the efficacy of midurethral slings as secondary surgery in women with recurrent incontinence. Five small studies with relatively short follow-up could be found addressing the issue (Azam et al, 2001; Rezapour and Ulmsten, 2001; Kuuva and Nilsson, 2002, 2003; Lo et al, 2002a; Rardin et al, 2002). Comparison of the studies is hampered by differences in the definitions used for cure, improved, and failed. The population of patients may be considered skewed by the inclusion of women in whom bulking agents failed. It is debatable whether women in whom bulking agents fail are the same as those in whom a surgical anti-incontinence procedure has failed. The methods of evaluating outcomes (objective, subjective, or both) also differ between studies. Despite these limitations between studies, cure rates of a midurethral sling after prior failed anti-incontinence surgery vary from 81% to 89.6%. Failure rates vary from 4.2% to 13%. In a review of these articles, several trends emerge: the procedure can be performed in the same way as it is performed for primary genuine SUI. The complication rate is similar to that of TVT done for primary SUI, but risk of bladder perforation appears to be higher in women who have had one or more prior retropubic suspensions. The failure rate is higher in women with immobile urethras, as is the case in primary surgery.
The longest follow-up of women who underwent TVT for recurrent incontinence is 4 years in a study by Rezapour and Ulmsten (2001). The 34 women studied had undergone 64 different anti-incontinence surgeries. Any patient with significant prolapse, DO, or ISD defined as a MUCP of less than 20 cm H2O was excluded. By physical examination, 24 women had a hypermobile urethra. Ten had a less mobile urethra, but none had a fixed urethra. The procedure was performed using the standard TVT technique, and only one bladder perforation occurred in a patient with a prior Marshall-Marchetti-Krantz urethroplasty. No significant complications were encountered. Twenty-eight (82%) were cured by objective and subjective parameters, 3 (9%) were improved based on failure to achieve more than 90% improvement in quality of life, and in 3 the procedure failed. Postoperative voiding dysfunction was negligible with no change in postvoid residual urine volume after 8 weeks. Long-term catheterization was not necessary in any patient. These results were durable up to 5 years.
The mechanism of failure in midurethral slings is typically misplacement of the suburethral tape or inadequate tension on the tape. There are a few reports of small numbers concerning recurrent incontinence after a midurethral sling in patients being treated with a repeat midurethral sling (Riachi et al, 2002; Villet et al, 2002; Lee et al, 2007a; Tsivian et al, 2007; Biggs et al, 2009). Reported cure rates of a midurethral sling after prior failed anti-incontinence surgery vary from 62.5% to 92.3%. Cure rates are higher for retropubic slings than for the TOT approach for recurrent SUI. Tsivian and associates (2007) found that in 12 patients with repeat midurethral sling the only procedure that failed was the TOT. Similarly, Lee and colleagues (2007a) found that the cure rate for the repeat TOT approach was 62.5% as compared with 92.3% for the repeat retropubic sling procedure. A possible explanation for this difference is the angle of the tape; specifically the retropubic sling has a U shape, which may be more supportive and obstructive than the TOT. Additionally, the outside-in approach to the TOT procedure may need wider dissection of the periurethral area, leading to future migration of the tape. Salvage procedures are performed on a portion of women who failed the initial midurethral sling due to underlying ISD or now have a fixed urethra from the initial surgery. This is consistent with the evidence of high success in retropubic slings for patients with a component of ISD.
New Technology: Single-Incision Transvaginal Slings
Surgical treatment of SUI has expanded to include a single-incision sling (TVT-S). This technology was first approved (Gynecare, TVT Secur) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2006 and has since included the AMS and MiniArc. There are little data available regarding the safety and efficacy of this new generation of slings. The ideal midurethral sling requires a short hospital stay, has rare and mild complications, provides a quick return to active life, and has high success rates.
Procedure
The device consists of a short 8 × 1.1-cm polypropylene laser-cut tape, the same material as a standard TVT, which is coated on both ends with an absorbable fleece material (Ethisorb). The absorbable material is made of polyglactin and polydioxanone. It is usually absorbable within 90 days, with polypropylene remaining intact to provide long-term fixation. A curved stainless steel inserter instrument and “release wire” is attached on both ends of the mesh. The implant may be placed under the midurethra and can be fixed in the “hammock” position (Fig. 73–14A) into the obturator internus muscle or in the U-shaped position (see Fig. 73–14B) into the connective tissue of the urogenital diaphragm behind the pubic bone (Meschia et al, 2009).
Figure 73–14 Midurethral sling as placed with single-incision approach. A, “Hammock.” B, “U” position.
The procedure is performed with the patient in the dorsal lithotomy position (with sequential compression devices in place) with a significant degree of flexion (70 degrees or more) of the thighs. A Foley catheter is placed before the repair to ensure the bladder is fully decompressed before passage of the device. As heretofore described, the patient has received parenteral sedation, and approximately 5 mL of 0.9% normal saline is used to hydrodistend the anterior vagina. After the vaginal incision is created, minimal dissection is performed using Metzenbaum scissors under the vaginal flaps on either side to elevate the vaginal epithelium from the underlying periurethral tissue to the level of the pubocervical fascia, which is not perforated. One inserter of the device is placed in the right dissection tunnel immediately beneath the vaginal epithelium and advanced up to the ischiopubic bone and into the internal obturator muscle, where the tape edges are anchored by the needle holder. The left side is introduced in the same way, creating a hammock-shaped sling. The definitive sling tension is achieved when the tip of a hemostat is easily passed between the urethra and the sling. Before engaging the sling by pulling the release wire, the patient is given indigo carmine and undergoes cystoscopy with a 30-degree rigid cystoscope. This step is essential to avoid the future morbidity of repeat surgery for intravesical or urethral mesh. Efflux of both ureteral orifices is confirmed. At this point the release wires are pulled with an empty needle driver and the inserters are removed on each side with a twisting motion of the hand. The authors’ experience suggests that the tension of the mini-slings should be tighter than in the classic TVT or TVT-O procedures to achieve the same result.
Anatomic Considerations
Like the TVT procedure, early attempts are being made at describing the anatomic localization and function of the TVT-S with cadaveric dissection and through ultrasound. Using 14 embalmed and 5 fresh frozen female bodies, Hubka and colleagues (2009) placed TVT-S inserters bilaterally. After dissection, they measured the distances from the obturator bundle (obturator nerve and vessels) and found that the mean distance of the TVT-S from the obturator bundle was 3.05 to 3.07 cm. Perforation of the fascia of obturator internus muscle occurred in 4.4% and they believed that injury to variable vessels could occur. The position of the TVT-S was not found to change with repositioning the legs. Ultrasound studies attempt to identify the dynamics behind the curative effects of the TVT-S. Martan and associates (2009) analyzed 85 patients after a TVT-S with perineal ultrasonography. Efficacy of the TVT-S was evaluated with cough test and validated questionnaire. Objectively, 62% had a negative cough test and 38% had persistent leakage. The TVT-S was noted to restrict urethral mobility, with a higher degree of obstruction associated with a higher likelihood of cure. This restrictive effect was noted to weaken within the first 3 months after surgery.
Results
There are nine prospective, often multi-institutional trials with minimum of 1-year follow-up reviewing the results of TVT-S and MiniArc slings. Dmochowski and colleagues (2009) report on the largest ongoing registry at 29 sites in eight countries. Effectiveness was measured by standing cough test and Incontinence Quality of Life (I-QOL) instrument. Six hundred forty-two women were studied, with 64.5% having a hammock placement and 35.5% having the U placement of the TVT-S. Of these women, 65.3% had pure SUI and 34.7% had MUI, with predominately stress symptoms. Intraoperative complications noted included one bladder perforation (0.2%) and 3 cases of bleeding more than 200 mL (0.5%). Postoperatively, there was one reported case of retention (0.2%), 10 UTIs (1.6%), 6 cases of voiding dysfunction (0.9%), and 15 cases of de novo urgency (2.3%). There were 5 cases of mesh erosion (0.8%). Improvements in quality of life at 3 months were sustained at 12 months. Objective incontinence with cough test was 11% at 6 months and 12.5% at 12 months, giving an objective cure rate of 87.5%.
Pickens and colleagues (2009) presented their initial experience with 120 MiniArc cases at 13 month follow-up. Success was defined as using no pads, with subjective outcomes assessed with the IIQ-7 and UDI-6 questionnaires. Thirty-five percent had concurrent UUI. At 13 months, 94% had complete resolution of SUI whereas 6 patients reported significant improvement and 1 patient experienced a treatment failure. Twenty-four percent reported resolution of their UUI. Three patients (0.4%) had intraoperative bladder perforations. Two patients experienced retention postoperatively: in 1 it resolved, and the other patient had a urethrolysis due to persistent retention.
Krofta and coworkers (2009) analyzed the efficacy and complications among 73 women using a cough stress test and validated questionnaires. There were no major perioperative complications or cases of urinary retention reported. Two patients had UTIs (2.9%) and 4 had wound infections (5.8%) within the first week after surgery. Mesh erosion occurred in 4 patients (6%). Subjective outcomes were cure of 58.2%, 23.9% improvement, and 17.9% failure. Objective cure rate was 51.5%. A second anti-incontinence procedure was performed in 8 patients (six TVT procedures, two Burch colposuspensions). These authors believe that the TVT-S was less effective than the TVT or TVT-O.
In a prospective, multicenter study of 154 women with TVT-S, Debodinance and associates (2009) reported cure rates of 70.3%, improvement in 11%, and failure in 18.7% at 1 year follow-up. MUI occurred in 31.8%. Perioperative complications included five hemorrhages, one bladder injury, one vaginal wound, 21 cases of elevated postvoid residual urine volume, and 1 woman with persistent groin pain. Two patients returned with vaginal extrusion of mesh and 1 with a granuloma. Cure of urgency was reported by 61.1%, whereas 12.3% reported de novo urgency. The overall cure rate did not change between 2 months and 1 year.
Neuman and associates (2008) performed a prospective observational study of 100 consecutive women with “hammock-style” TVT-S. The perioperative and 12-month postoperative data were compared between the first 50 patients and the last 50 patients. The objective failure rate went down from 20% to 8% between the two groups with the tape being placed closer to the urethra. Four (8%) patients in the first group had vaginal perforation with the inserter. This was avoided in the second group by widening the submucosal tunnel. The tape extrusion rate decreased from 12% to 8% by making deeper submucosal tunnels. There was one case of a paravesical self-remitting hematoma. Otherwise, the authors reported no cases of bladder or urethral perforation, UTI, wound infection, or intraoperative bleeding. At 12-month follow-up the objective cure rates between the two groups were 88.6% and 93.5%. Oliveira and colleagues (2009) provide 15-month follow-up of 107 patients with TVT-S. Fifteen percent had MUI, with predominant SUI symptoms. Seventy-one percent reported being dry, and 14% improved. Six (5.6%) patients presented with de novo urgency, and one case of vaginal mesh extrusion was reported. There were no cases of bowel injury, bladder perforation, hematuria, excessive bleeding, or hematoma formation. Meschia and coworkers (2009) used multiple validated questionnaires and cough test to assess 91 women after placement of TVT-S at 1-year follow-up. Fifty-five patients had a TVT-S in the hammock position, and 40 patients had it in the U position. These researchers reported subjective and objective cure rates of 78% and 81%, respectively. No bladder perforations were encountered. Two patients had intraoperative hemorrhage greater than 500 mL. Postoperative complications included 7 women with voiding difficulty (8%), 9 with recurrent UTIs (10%), 9 with de novo urgency (10%), and 2 with vaginal extrusions. Among the 20 with failed procedures, 8 patients went on to have a second anti-incontinence procedure (5 with retropubic TVT surgery, 2 with transobturator slings, 1 with a Reemex implant). Tartaglia and colleagues (2009) provide up to 18-month follow-up on 32 hammock-shaped TVT-S tapes. There were no surgical complications or reports of postoperative pain. One case of vaginal extrusion occurred. All 32 patients achieved continence based on quality of life assessment and physical examination. Jimenez and associates (2008) reported on their experience with both TVT-S and MiniArc slings in 41 patients with 1-year follow-up. The median follow-up in the TVT-S group was longer than the MiniArc group (328 days vs. 101 days). Only one bladder perforation was experienced in the TVT-S group. The reported cure rates were 80.4% in the TVT-S group and 90.2% in the MiniArc group. Ninety percent of the patients reported being satisfied at 3 months.
Four studies have compared mini-slings to standard midurethral slings (TVT or TVT-O). Using the TVT-WORLD observational registry, Tincello and colleagues (2009) compared 12-month outcomes of the TVT, TVT-O, and TVT-S procedures. The primary outcome measures are cough stress test and incontinence quality of life. The baseline characteristics, including proportions of MUI, were similar. TVT-S procedure patients returned to normal activities quicker than those who received either the TVT or TVT-O. Satisfaction rates were similar between the three groups. Objective cure rates were as follows: 90.6% TVT-S, 87.7% TVT, and 97.2% TVT-O. In regard to complications, all three techniques were similar.
Basu and Duckett (2009) performed a prospective, randomized control trial of the TVT versus the MiniArc in 70 women with 6-month follow-up. The MiniArc group had statistically lower subjective cure rates and urodynamic SUI cure rates than the TVT group: 63.3% vs. 100% and 45% vs. 93%, respectively. At 6-month follow-up, 50% of the MiniArc population had urodynamic SUI versus 7% of the TVT group. Two groups reported on randomized control trials of the TVT-O versus the TVT-S (Hinoul et al, 2009; Jarmi-Di et al, 2009). Jarmy-Di and associates (2009) observed the early postoperative results at 30 days. Two patients in the TVT-S group had temporary urinary retention, and 1 patient in the TVT-O group had leg pain. There were no UTIs or evidence of de novo urgency within this month period. No early mesh erosions were reported. Hinoul and associates (2009) performed a 12-month study of 135 randomized women (70 TVT-O and 65 TVT-S). Quality of life and subjective outcomes were reported using validated questionnaires. One bladder perforation occurred in the TVT-O group. The self-reported cure rates for the TVT-O were significantly higher than for the TVT-S (91.5% vs. 78.5%, P = .02), yet the TVT-S procedure was associated with less pain in the first week postoperatively. This pain difference disappeared within 2 weeks. Based on short-term follow-up, the single incision slings are a valuable addition, providing short hospital stays, quicker return to active life, and success rates equal to the TVT and TVT-O procedures. Their appeal is the single incision, avoidance of the retropubic space, and prevention of thigh pain. Most importantly, patients thus far appear to have reduced discomfort in the postoperative period. Long-term, comparative data collection is necessary to establish the efficacy and durability of these procedures.
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