Appendix A Essential Oils for General Use in Healthcare Settings
Abies alba fol. [European silver fir, white fir]
Abies balsamea [Canada balsam]
Abies sibirica fol. [Siberian pine]
Achillea millefolium herb. [yarrow]
Acorus calamus [sweet flag, calamus]
Aloysia triphylla [lemon verbena]
Angelica archangelica [angelica]
Aniba rosaeodora fol. [rosewood, bois de rose]
Boswellia carteri res. dest. [frankincense, olibanum]
Cananga odorata flos [ylang ylang]
Cedrus atlantica lig. [Atlas cedarwood, satinwood]
Chamaemelum nobile (= Anthemis nobilis) flos [Roman chamomile]
Cinnamomum verum cort. [cinnamon bark]
Cinnamomum verum fol. [cinnamon leaf]
Cistus ladaniferus ram., fol. [labdanum]
Citrus aurantifolia (C. medica var. acida) per. [lime]
Citrus aurantium var. amara flos [neroli bigarade]
Citrus aurantium var. amara fol. [petitgrain bigarade]
Citrus aurantium var. amara per. [orange bigarade]
Citrus bergamia per. [bergamot]
Citrus paradisi per. [grapefruit]
Citrus reticulata per. [mandarin]
Citrus sinensis per. [sweet orange]
Commiphora myrrha var. molmol (= C. molmol, Balsamodendron myrrha) res. dist. [myrrh]
Coriandrum sativum fruct. [coriander]
Cuminum cyminum fruct. [cumin]
Cupressus sempervirens fol., strob. [cypress]
Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus [lemongrass]
Cymbopogon martinii, Andropogon martinii [palmarosa]
Cymbopogon nardus and Cymbopogon winterianus [citronella]
Elettaria cardamomum fruct. [cardamom]
Eucalyptus citriodora fol. [lemon scented gum]
Eucalyptus dives ct. piperitenone fol. [broad-leaved peppermint]
Eucalyptus globulus fol. [Tasmanian blue gum]
Eucalyptus radiata subsp. radiata (= E. numerosa, E. lindleyana) fol. [black peppermint, narrow-leaved peppermint]
Eucalyptus smithii fol. [gully gum]
Eucalyptus staigeriana [lemon scented ironbark]
Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce fruct. [sweet fennel]
Helichrysum angustifolium (= H. italicum) flos
Hyssopus officinalis flos, fol. [hyssop]
Inula graveolens flos, fol. [elecampane]
Juniperus communis fruct. [juniper berry]
Juniperus communis ram. [juniper twig]
Kunzea ericoides [kanuka, burgan]
Lavandula angustifolia (= L. officinalis, L. vera) flos [lavender]
Lavandula x intermedia ‘Super’ flos [lavandin]
Leptospermum scoparium [manuka]
Litsea cubeba fruct. [may chang]
Matricaria recutita (= M. chamomilla, Chamomilla recutita) flos [German chamomile]
Melaleuca alternifolia fol. [tea tree]
Melaleuca leucadendron (= M. cajuputi) fol. [cajuput]
Melaleuca viridiflora (= M. quinquenervia) fol. [niaouli]
Melissa officinalis fol. [melissa]
Mentha x piperita fol. [peppermint]
Myristica fragrans sem. [nutmeg]
Nardostachys jatamansi (= N. grandiflora) rad.
Nepeta cataria var. citriodora flos, fol. [catnep]
Ocimum basilicum fol. [European basil]
Origanum majorana flos, fol. [sweet marjoram]
Origanum vulgare subsp. viride (= O. heracleoticum), [Greek oregano, green oregano]
Ormenis multicaulis, Ormenis mixta flos [Moroccan chamomile]
Pelargonium graveolens fol. [geranium]
Picea nigra, P. mariana [black spruce]
Pimenta dioica fruct. [allspice]
Pimenta racemosa fruct. fol. [West Indian bay]
Pimpinella anisum fruct. [aniseed]
Pinus mugo var. pumilio [dwarf pine]
Pinus sylvestris fol. [Scots pine]
Piper nigrum fruct. [black pepper]
Pogostemon patchouli, Pogostemon cablin fol. [patchouli]
Ravensara aromatica fol. [aromatic ravensara]
Rosa damascena, R. centifolia flos (dist.) [rose otto]
Rosmarinus officinalis (ct. cineole, ct. camphor) fol. [rosemary]
Rosmarinus officinalis (ct. verbenone) fol. [rosemary]
Salvia officinalis fol. [sage, Dalmatian sage]
Salvia sclarea flos, fol. [clary]
Santalum album lig. [sandalwood]
Satureia hortensis fol. [summer or garden savory]
Satureia montana fol. [winter or mountain savory]
Syzygium aromaticum flos [clove bud]
Tagetes minuta (= T. glandulifera, T. patula, T. erecta) flos [taget, French marigold]
Thymus mastichina flos, fol. [Spanish marjoram]
Thymus satureioides [Moroccan thyme, borneol thyme]
Thymus vulgaris (population) herb. [thyme]
Thymus vulgaris (ct. geraniol, ct. linalool) herb. [sweet thyme]
Thymus vulgaris (ct. thujanol-4) herb. [sweet thyme]
Thymus vulgaris (ct. thymol, ct. carvacrol) herb. [thyme]
Valeriana officinalis rad. [valerian]
Valeriana wallichii rad. [Indian valerian]
Vetiveria zizanioides rad. [vetiver]
This appendix is not intended to be a comprehensive list of essential oils and their properties. It is designed with healthcare situations in mind, and includes enough information to cover most eventualities where treatment with essential oils is appropriate. Several essential oils mentioned in the text of this book that do not appear here are shown in the chart in Appendix B9.
It is not possible in a general list such as this to give precise figures for the presence of a component in a given essential oil, particularly when the essential oils used in aromatherapy are not standardized but are taken directly from the still and used without further treatment. The percentages shown for the constituents are aggregated and show the highs and lows for given compounds, hence the variation, sometimes remarkably wide, in these. A common misinterpretation of aggregated data is that a species might appear to be high in two closely related compounds, e.g. thymol and carvacrol. It must be borne in mind that there is often compensation between the two compounds, so that when the quantity of one is raised another is lowered (Beckstrom-Sternberg & Duke 1996). The factors that affect the variability of components have been discussed in Section 1, Essential oil science. Different authors do give widely varying information – and sometimes fail to identify accurately the plant being discussed. It cannot be ruled out that some sources may be referring to standardized or adulterated oils.
Asterisks (*) are used to indicate where the authors have found essential oils to be particularly effective.
The tables listed below summarize various properties of essential oils and are to use in conjunction with this Appendix A(I):
Table 4.2 Antibacterial properties
Table 4.3 Antifungal properties
Table 4.4 Anti-inflammatory properties
Table 4.5 Antiviral properties
Table 4.6 Digestive properties
Table 4.7 Hormonal properties
Table 4.8 Insect repellent and insecticidal properties
Table 4.9 Effects of essential oils on mice motility
monoterpenes (90–95%) fenchene 0.2%, bornylene 0.05%, santene 1.8%, tricyclene 1.8%, (–)-α-pinene 23.6%, β-fenchene 0.2%, α-fenchene 2.0%, camphene 21.1%, β-pinene 8.7%, sabinene 0.2%, δ-3-carene 0.1%, α-phellandrene 0.2%, α-terpinene 0.7%, (–)-limonene 34.2%, β-phellandrene 1.3%, γ-terpinene 0.3%, α-terpinolene 1.1%, α-thujene trace, β-myrcene 1.0%
• no contraindications known at normal aromatherapeutic dose
• caution advised with oral use (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 347)
• conifers are rich in terpenes, and so are good decongestants (also indicated for fluid retention), respiratory system cleansers
• in vitro tests showed Turkish Abies alba oil to have moderate activity against 10 bacteria and Candida albicans but none against E. coli (Bagci & Digrak 1996)
• in vitro testing of 9 Turkish Abies sp essential oils against 6 bacteria and Candida albicans showed the least active to be Abies alba which also had little activity towards yeast (Bagci & Digrak 1996)
monoterpenones camphor 0.2%, piperitone 1.6% sesquiterpenone-ester juvabione trace
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antiarthritic | arthritis |
| antibacterial | Staphylococcus, E. coli, see Table 4.2 |
| antiparasitic | ascaridiosis (thread worms) |
| antiseptic, pulmonary | asthma, catarrh, rhinitis, bronchitis, sinusitis |
| antiseptic urinary | cystitis |
| antispasmodic | muscular tension |
| antitussive | |
| stimulant, neurotonic | depression, stress |
| cicatrizant | burns, wounds, cuts |
• none known at normal aromatherapeutic dose
• caution advised with oral use (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 347)
• very balancing oil to the energy (avoid evening use)
• for the respiratory system use blended with an essential oil having a high 1,8-cineole content
• balsam fir needle oil is not to be confused with Canada balsam, which is the oleoresin collected by tapping the trunk of the same species (Bruneton 1995 p. 473)
• an oil distilled from the oleoresin is used in pharmacy in the formulation of haemorrhoid creams
• an essential oil obtained from the twigs contains santene 0.1–1.2%, α-pinene 7.6–20.5%, camphene 1.7–7.4%, β-pinene 12.1–40.8%, δ-3-carene 0.8–29.6%, limonene 6.0–20.9%, β-phellandrene 2.0–8.8%, bornyl acetate 3.6–12.2%
• the twig oil has no oxygenated compounds
• Lawless (1992 p. 49) gives this oil as being purgative and diuretic
monoterpenyl (–)-bornyl acetate 25–42%, terpenyl acetate
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anti-inflammatory | pyorrhoea, see Table 4.4 |
| antispasmodic | spasmodic colitis, bronchial asthma |
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| analgesic | neuralgia, sprained ankle, sprains |
| anticatarrhal* | colds, catarrh |
| anti-inflammatory* | prostatitis, neuritis, rheumatism, see Table 4.4 |
| antiseptic | urinary infections |
| choleretic* | hepatobiliary deficiency, poor digestion |
| cicatrizant* | |
| decongestant | dysmenorrhoea |
| digestive stimulant | |
| diuretic | water retention |
| emmenagogic* | oligomenorrhoea, amenorrhoea |
| expectorant | |
| febrifuge | fevers |
| hypotensor | hypertension |
| litholytic | kidney stones |
| vulnerary | varicose ulcers |
• not normally used for babies, children and pregnant women
• neurotoxic and abortive (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 348)
• yarrow contains little or no thujone (Leung 1980)
• some individuals show positive patch test reactions to yarrow
• cross-sensitivity has been demonstrated between other Asteraceae members and yarrow (Duke 1985)
• yarrow oil is obtained from the A. millefolium complex, a group of hardly separable species or subspecies of Asteraceae found throughout the temperate and boreal zones of the northern and southern hemispheres; the taxonomic problem is extensive and confusing (Lawrence 1984) and what is known as yarrow oil may come from one of several species
• at least 14 different chemical races have been identified in Europe (Mills 1991)
• yarrow has been universally used for the treatment of rheumatism, colds, catarrh, fevers, hypertension and amenorrhoea (Wren 1988)
• yarrow is diaphoretic, a peripheral vasodilator (Mills 1991)
• persons known to be allergic to ragweeds should be cautious about drinking chamomile or yarrow teas (Tyler 1982)
• isoartemisia ketone 9% is listed by Franchomme & Pénoël (2001 p. 348) for this oil, but not by Lawrence; according to Guenther (1948–1952) it is found in Artemisia annua
• camphor chemotype should be used with caution; when taken orally camphor causes convulsions if sufficient quantity is taken (Craig 1953)
• anti-inflammatory properties are associated with azulenes (Chandler, Hooper & Harvey 1982)
• CNS-depressant activity in mice has been documented (Kudrzycka-Bieloszabska & Glowniak 1966)
trimethyl elemicin 0.1–1.3%, cis-isoelemicin trace-0.1%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anti-inflammatory | gout, gastritis, bronchitis, cystitis, see Table 4.4 |
| antispasmodic, spasmolytic | dysentery, diarrhoea, enterocolitis |
| carminative | flatulence |
| digestive | poor appetite, sluggish digestion, see Table 4.6 |
| diuretic | uric acid elimination |
| sedative | |
| sudorific | fever |
• short-term use only (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 348)
• neurotoxic and abortive (Franchomme & Pénoël p. 349)
• oral use best avoided altogether (Tisserand & Balacs 1995a p. 204)
• the USA Food and Drug Administration bans the use of oil of calamus for food use because β-asarone was found to be a hepatocarcinogen in rats (Lawrence 1981 p. 47)
• long-term administration of Indian calamus oil to rats induces duodenal tumours (Bruneton 1995 p. 463, Taylor et al 1967)
• Baxter et al (1962) showed that β-asarone has a cis configuration and asarone has a trans configuration; both isomers were found to have hypnotic potentiating activity
• β-asarone was found to possess sedative activity (Baxter, Fan & Kardel 1962)
• reported to have hypotensive activity in cats and rabbits (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 112)
• β-asarone (Z-isoasarone) is absent from the essential oil of the American variety but is dominant in the oil of the Indian variety and also the Chinese variety (up to 85%)
• β-asarone is banned in the USA as a pharmaceutical ingredient; the α isomer is permitted (Harborne & Baxter 1993)
• it is possible that β-asarone is the most active carcinogenic compound to be found in essential oils (Tisserand & Balacs 1995b p. 95)
• calamus oil has been found to induce sterility in male houseflies and insects (Mathur & Saxena 1975, Saxena et al 1977)
• Indian calamus root oil repels houseflies (Adler & Jacobson 1982)
• used to flavour gin and beers (Grieve 1998)
• Acorus calamus var. americanus, diploid form, contains a mixture of shyobunones 13–45% and virtually no β-asarone (Keller & Stahl 1983); the triploid forms (Acorus calamus var. calamus) contain a mixture of shyobunones (23–32%) and β-asarone (8–19%); tetraploid forms (Acorus calamus var. angustatus) contain cis-methyl isoeugenol (0.4%), a mixture of shyobunones (1–53%) and β-asarone (12–96%) (Röst & Bos 1979)
• shyobunone chemotype contraindicated for use on babies, young children and in pregnancy (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 349)
• shyobunone chemotype given as anticatarrhal and mucolytic (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 348)
monoterpenes α-pinene 0.1–1%, β-pinene 0.5%, β-myrcene 0.1%, limonene 4.2–15%, cis-β-ocimene, trans-β-ocimene 0.8-2.5%, camphene trace, sabinene trace-2.5%, α-terpinene trace, α-terpinolene trace
sesquiterpenes α-cedrene 0.3%, β-elemene 0.1%, isocaryophyllene, β-caryophyllene 3–3.8%, thujopsene 0.2%, alloaromadendrene 0.4%, germacrene D 1.8%, α-farnesene and bicyclogermacrene 4.8%, δ-cadinene 0.5%, γ-cadinene 0.2%, β-curcumene 2%, β-cubebene 0.3%, β-maaliene 2%, copaene 0.3%
monoterpenols geraniol 0.5–6%, nerol 0.5–5.2%, linalool 0.5%, isopulegol 0.1%, terpinen-4-ol 0.3%, α-terpineol 1.5–2.5%, citronellol 1%, cis-thujanol-4-ol 0.2%
sesquiterpenols (+)-nerolidol 1.3-2% cedrol 0.1%, spathulenol 2-3%, cadinol 0.7%, farnesol 0.1%, caryophylla-1-(12), 8(15)-dien-9-α-ol, caryophylla-1(12),7-dien-9-α-ol, caryophylla-1(12)7-dien-9-β-ol, muurolol
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anti-infectious | amoebiasis |
| anti-inflammatory | rheumatism, cystitis, see Table 4.4 |
| antipyretic | malaria |
| calming | tachycardia, hypertension, stress, asthma |
| digestive | indigestion, flatulence, see Table 4.6 |
| hormonelike | see Table 4.7 |
| litholytic | kidney stones (gravel) |
| sedative | depression, insomnia, stress |
| stimulant (gallbladder, pancreas) | diabetes |
| stimulant (skin) | psoriasis, pallid skin |
• no known contraindications at normal aromatherapeutic dose, but avoid use on the skin because of the presence of furanocoumarins (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 395)
• no contraindications with physiological dosage; contains traces of furocoumarin; can have sensitizing effects on the skin (Schnaubelt 1998 p. 77)
• genuine Aloysia triphylla does not irritate the skin, unlike other oils with similar concentrations of citral (Schnaubelt 1998 p. 117)
• should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally (Tisserand & Balacs 1995b p. 177); this is based on tests carried out at 12% of fragrance quality oils (Opdyke 1992 p. 30); concentrations used in aromatherapy are very much less than 12%, probably only in the region of 1%
• the true oil can be difficult to source; most lemon verbena oils are blends made of lemon, citronella, lemongrass etc: the genuine oil is expensive
• IFRA recommendation is that lemon verbena oil should not be used in fragrance formulations because of its possible phototoxicity and sensitization
• infusions of lemon verbena are used to treat various digestive ailments and sleeplessness (Bruneton 1995 p. 462)
• in vitro tests showed Italian oil to have poor antifungal activity (Guarrera et al 1995)
umbelliferone, umbelliprenine dill furan 0.4%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anticatarrhal | respiratory catarrh |
| anticoagulant | infarction, hemogliase |
| bactericidal | |
| carminative | flatulence |
| cholagogic, choleretic digestive | low bile production dyspepsia, gastric upsets, constipation, see Table 4.6 |
| hypotensor | hypertension |
| mucolytic | bronchitis |
| sedative | sleep-inducing |
| spasmolytic | smooth muscle spasm, colic, hiccups |
• non-toxic, non-irritant and not phototoxic at normal dose levels (Tisserand & Balacs 1995b p. 204)
• undiluted oil was not irritating when applied to the backs of hairless mice and pigs
• moderately irritating when applied full strength to both intact and abraded rabbit skin for 24 hours under occlusion
• 4% in petrolatum did not produce irritation after a 48-hour closed-patch test on humans
• no sensitization was obtained with 4% of oil in petrolatum
• no phototoxicity was reported when undiluted oil was applied to hairless mice and pigs
• dill seed essential oil is neurotoxic and abortive (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 351)
• contraindicated for babies, young children and in pregnancy (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 351)
• used in soaps and in the preparation of dill water for flatulence in infants
• chemically very similar to caraway oil; both oils consist largely of carvone and limonene
• East Indian dill seed oil Anethum sowa [SOYAH] may be substituted but can be distinguished by a higher specific gravity (0.945–0.972) and a lower optical rotation (+48 to +57); dillapiole is present (about 20%), making this oil abortifacient and toxic to liver and kidneys; there is a lower content of carvone
• Indian dill seed oil shows antifungal activity (Ramadan et al 1972a)
• anethofuran, carvone and limonene were tested on mice; all acted as inducers of the detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase in the liver; carvone was the most potent inducer (Zheng et al 1992)
pentadecanolide <1%, ambrettolide <1%, heptadecanolide, tridecanolide
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| anticoagulant | |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| antiseptic | urinary infections, respiratory tract infections |
| antispasmodic | spasmodic enterocolitis, painful periods |
| carminative | flatulence |
| diuretic | |
| digestive | dyspepsia, indigestion, griping, colic, anorexia, stomach ulcers, see Table 4.6 |
| emmenagogic | |
| expectorant | asthma, bronchitis |
| febrifuge | |
| neurotonic | |
| sedative | anxiety, nervous fatigue, insomnia |
| soothing | irritated skin, arthritis, rheumatism |
monoterpenes: β-phellandrene 16–35%, α-phellandrene 2.7–20%, β-pinene 9.2%, camphene 0.4%, β-pinene 0.7%, sabinene 0.3%, β-myrcene 1.5%, α-terpinene trace, limonene 38.7%, cis-β-ocimene 0.15%, γ-terpinene trace, trans-β-ocimene 0.3%, α-terpinolene trace
sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene 3.3%, α-copaene 0.3%, α-humulene 0.7%
• root oil is photosensitizing when used on the skin owing to the presence of coumarins (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 351)
• root oil phototoxicity is due to the presence of the coumarins bergapten, xanthotoxin; IFRA (1992) recommends a maximum of 0.8% presence of the root oil in product applied to skin which is to be exposed to UV rays
• both angelica root and seed oil are non-irritant on the skin
• angelica root oil should not be used during pregnancy or by diabetics (Lawless 1992 p. 44)
• angelica seed oil is cheaper than the root oil and is often added to the root oil
• umbelliferone is a proven antifungal agent (Mabey 1988 p. 117)
• pinene is antimicrobial and expectorant (Opdyke 1975b p. 713)
• angelica root oil is antispasmodic (Wagner et al 1979)
• root oil is antibacterial and antifungal (Saksena & Tripathi 1985)
• bergapten, xanthotoxin and other coumarins have been shown to be effective in the treatment of psoriasis and vitiligo
• both root and seed oils are used at a maximum of 0.1% in perfumes (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 33)
• seed oil is photosensitizing when used on the skin due to the presence of furocoumarins (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 351)
• Opdyke (1974c p. 12) gives angelica seed oil as being not phototoxic
monoterpenoid cis-linalool oxide 1.5%, trans-linalool oxide 1.3%, 1,8-cineole 0.2–2.3%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antifungal* | Candida, see Table 4.3 |
| anti-infectious | respiratory infections*, coughs, rhino-pharyngitis, influenza, cystitis, vaginitis |
| antiparasitic | |
| antiseptic | skin problems, acne |
| antiviral* | colds, influenza, see Table 4.5 |
| astringent | wrinkles |
| bactericidal* | |
| cicatrizant | cuts, scars |
| stimulating* | general debility, overwork, sexual debility |
| tonic | nervous depression, stress-related headaches, fatigue |
• no known contraindications to aromatherapy use
• potent antibacterial agent (Lis-Balchin, Deans & Hart 1994)
• non-toxic when applied externally (Opdyke 1978a)
• linalool was found to have weak tumour-promoting properties in mice (Homburger & Boger 1968, Opdyke 1975c)
• anticonvulsant activity in mice and rats; spasmolytic activity on isolated guinea pig ileum and antimicrobial properties have been reported (Opdyke 1975a)
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| analgesic | rheumatism, sports injuries |
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| anticatarrhal* | asthma, bronchitis* |
| antidepressive* | nervous depression* |
| anti-infectious | respiratory tract |
| anti-inflammatory | rheumatism, see Table 4.4 |
| antioxidant | combats ageing process |
| cicatrizant | scars, ulcers, wounds |
| energizing expectorant | |
| immunostimulant* | immunodeficiency* |
• no contraindications yet known for this gentle, effective, distilled oil
• olibanum absolute produces no skin irritation or sensitization reactions at 8% dilution when tested on humans, no phototoxic effects when undiluted (Opdyke 1978b)
• antibacterial action including Listeria monocytogenes (Lis-Balchin, Deans & Hart 1994)
• mild antifungal activity (Maruzzella et al. 1960)
• olibanum distilled oils were tested at 10% and 100% concentrations against Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea, Mycobacterium phlei, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Neisseria catarrhalis and all were found to be inhibited to some extent by the undiluted oil: an n-hexane extract of the oleogum resin had markedly less antimicrobial activity (Abdel Waheb et al 1987)
• the leaf oil of Boswellia serrata has antifungal effects (Garg 1974)
(Percentage composition figures are given as a guide – ylang ylang is an oil of variable make-up.)
monoterpenyl geranyl acetate 5–10%
sesquiterpenyl farnesyl acetate 1–7%
aromatic methyl anthranilate, methyl salicylate 1–10%, benzyl benzoate 5–12%, benzyl acetate 3–8%, benzyl salicylate, methyl benzoate 1–5.5%, p-cresyl acetate
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antidiabetic | diabetes |
| antiseptic | intestinal infections |
| antispasmodic* balancing* | cramp, colic |
| calming, antidepressant | tachycardia*, hyperpnoea, anxiety |
| hypotensor* | hypertension |
| reproductive stimulant | frigidity, impotence |
| sedative | insomnia, stress |
| tonic, scalp | hair growth |
• no contraindications known to normal aromatherapy use
• ylang ylang oil has been recognized as an allergen and removed from certain cosmetics (Mitchell & Rook 1979)
• no sensitization reactions at 10% dilution (Draize 1959)
• no irritation when tested at 10% dilution on humans (Opdyke 1974d)
• no phototoxic effects reported (Opdyke 1974d)
• can produce dermatitis in sensitized individuals (Duke 1985)
• the oil has been suggested as a possible substitute for quinine in malaria (Burkhill 1966)
• an essential oil is also prepared from the leaves
• stimulant when applied as a mask or by spraying (Rovesti & Colombo 1973)
• a mixture of ylang ylang and anise essential oils in a coconut extract (Paranix®) was applied once to five children and no living lice were found after seven days (Willimason et al 2007)
• a folk remedy for asthma, boils, diarrhoea, headache, malaria, ophthalmia, rheumatism, stomach ailments (Duke & Wain 1981)
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| antihistaminic | hay fever |
| antispasmodic* | gastric spasm*, large intestine spasm, intestinal problems |
| aperitive | loss of appetite |
| calming | anger, vertigo |
| carminative* | flatulence*, aerophagy* |
| cholagogic, choleretic | insufficient bile, indigestion |
| diuretic | |
| emmenagogic | |
| larvicidal | |
| mucolytic* | bronchitis* |
| stimulant | scalp problems |
• although caraway oil contains a substantial proportion of carvone, tests have proved that the whole oil is safe in normal use; however, it is best not used on infants under 3 years or expectant mothers
• in excessive dose it is neurotoxic and abortive
• no irritation or sensitization when tested at 4% dilution on humans (Opdyke 1973b)
• has a low level of phototoxicity (Opdyke 1973b)
• carvone and limonene have been shown to have an experimental cancer chemopreventative effect; overall carvone was the most potent, attributed to its α,β-unsaturated ketone system (Zheng, Kenney & Lam 1992d)
• the seeds are chewed to relieve toothache and for carminative effect (Foster 1993b p. 59)
• it is a well-known digestive stimulant and this property is made use of in drinks such as Benedictine, Grand Chartreuse and Izarra
• caraway seeds have been found in 3000-year-old Egyptian tombs
• caraway and peppermint oils combined in enteric coated capsules (Enteroplant®) were found to improve non-ulcer dyspepsia (May et al 1996): those with and without irritable bowel syndrome profited equally from the treatment
• the effect of a combination of peppermint (90 mg) and caraway (50 mg) on the gastromobility of six healthy volunteers was investigated; the subjects were given either enteric-coated (Enteroplant®) or non-enteric-coated capsules; both coated and non-coated preparations were concluded to be safe and acted locally to cause smooth muscle relaxation; the effect of the non-enteric-coated capsules was not as pronounced owing to dilution of the oils by gastric juices (Micklefield, Greving & May 2000)
• the oil exhibits antibacterial and larvicidal activities (Oishi et al 1974, Ramadan et al 1972a)
• has antispasmodic and antihistaminic activities (Debelmas & Rochat 1967)
• carvone induces the detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) in mouse tissue. Compounds that induce increased GST detoxification are considered potential inhibitors of carcinogenesis (Zheng, Kenney & Lam 1992d)
• Enteroplant®, containing a hydrophobic phase galenic auxiliary material with Mentha xx piperita and Carum carvi essential oils in an enteric-coated capsule, was examined; peppermint oil caused significant reduction in contractions in the duodenum and gastric corpus; caraway oil induced significant reduction in the duodenum, gastric corpus and antrum; the effect of both of the oils exceeded that of either the carrier or hydrophobic phase in producing smooth muscle relaxation (Micklefield et al 2003)
epoxy-β-himachalene and its epimer deodarone
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antiseptic | skin problems, scalp (with cade oil), urinary tract, eczema, pruritus (with bergamot oil) |
| arterial regenerator* | arteriosclerosis* |
| cicatrizant | skin problems, wounds |
| diuretic | oedema, water retention |
| lipolytic* | cellulite* |
| lymph tonic* | cellulite*, lymph circulation problems |
| mucolytic | bronchitis* |
| stimulant | scalp problems |
• it is important to specify this oil accurately: the term cedarwood oil has little meaning, because many oils are sold under this name, many of them from the Cupressaceae family
• considered in France to be neurotoxic and abortive, and not normally used there for pregnant women and infants
• Duraffourd (1982) recommends leaving internal use of this oil to a doctor
• the Moroccan oil C. atlantica showed no irritation or sensitization at 8% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1976g)
• has no phototoxic effects reported, although the use of toilet preparations containing unspecified cedarwood oils followed by exposure to various wavelengths sometimes causes dermatitis (Winter 1999 p. 114)
other 2-methylbutyl 2-methyl propionate 0.5–25%, 2-methylpropyl butanoate 0.5–10%, 2-methylbutyl 2-methylbutanoate 0.5–25%, 2-methylpropyl 3-methylbutanoate 0–10%, propyl angelate 0.5–10%, 2-methylpropyl angelate 0.5–25%, butyl angelate 0.5–10%, 3-methylpentyl angelate 0–10% (Nano, Sacco & Frattini 1974), isobutyl angelate 36–40%, isobutyl isobutanoate 4%, 2-methylbutyl methyl-2-butanoate 3%, isoamyl methyl-2-butanoate 3%, propyl angelate 1%, hexyl acetate 0.5-10%, isobutyl tiglate, isoamyl tiglate, hexyl tiglate, crotanoates, methacrylates
sesquiterpenyl 3-deshydronobiline
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antianaemic | anaemia |
| anti-inflammatory* | eczema, gout, inflamed skin, rheumatic pain, urticaria, skin irritation after shaving, cracked nipples, inflamed gums, neuritis, see Table 4.4 |
| antineuralgic | |
| antiparasitic* | intestinal parasites, lamblia, ascaris, threadworms |
| antispasmodic* | migraines, headaches, (relaxes neuromuscular tension), infantile diarrhoea |
| calming, sedative | insomnia*, irritability, migraine, nervous depression*, nervous shock* |
| carminative | gas, intestinal colic |
| digestive | indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea, see Table 4.6 |
| emmenagogic | nervous menstrual problems |
| menstrual | menopause, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea |
| ophthalmic | conjunctivitis, sore tired eyes |
| parasiticide | |
| stimulant | |
| sudorific | |
| vulnerary | boils, burns, wounds |
• no irritation or sensitization at 4% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1974e)
• no phototoxic effects reported (Opdyke 1974e)
• chamomile tea may cause anaphylaxis, contact dermatitis or other hypersensitivity reactions in allergic individuals; persons known to be allergic to ragweeds should be cautious about drinking chamomile or yarrow teas (Tyler 1982)
• the oil mixed with flour is a folk remedy for indurations of the liver, stomach and spleen (Duke 1985)
• oil is used in ‘Kamillosan’ ointment at 0.5% to treat nappy rash and cracked nipples; two women developed severe bilateral eczema using Kamillosan with 10.5% oil (McGeorge & Steele 1991)
• included in shampoos and for rinsing blond hair (Reynolds 1972)
• the oil is considered antispasmodic, carminative, cordial and sudorific (Duke 1985 p. 111)
• generally non-toxic when applied externally (Food and Drug Administration 1978)
• oil is active against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans and is used as an inhalant (Bartram 1995 p. 106)
• in animals a large dose produced sedation with a drop in body temperature (Rossi et al 1988)
• the oil has anti-inflammatory activity, antidiuretic and sedative effects following intraperitoneal administration in rats (Melegari et al 1988)
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| analgesic | toothache, rheumatism, gout pain |
| anti-infectious | oropharyngitis, cystitis, acute bronchitis, rhin-opharyngitis |
| anti-inflammatory | stomatitis, salpingitis, enterocolitis, see Table 4.4 |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| antiparasitic | see Table 4.8 |
| antiviral | |
| immunostimulant | increase IgA |
| neurotonic | |
| stimulating |
• cinnamon leaf oil has a different composition from the bark oil; the leaf oil consists chiefly of a phenol, is a powerful antiseptic but must be used sparingly because of the risk of skin irritation
• eugenol (present in cinnamon leaf oil) is reported to have weak tumour-promoting action on mouse skin and weak cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells
• cinnamon leaf oil is dermocaustic on mucous surfaces and should not be used on babies and young children
• undiluted cinnamon leaf oil was moderately irritating when applied to the backs of hairless mice and strongly irritating when applied under occlusion to both intact and abraded rabbit skin
• 10% cinnamon leaf oil in petrolatum did not produce irritation or sensitization in humans
• leaf oil is used in soaps, creams and perfumes at a maximum level of 0.8% (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 168)
• eugenol, eugenol acetate and methyl eugenol are reported to enhance trypsin activity in vitro (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 168)
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| alexipharmic | snake bites |
| analgesic | rheumatism |
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| anticoagulant | |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| anti-infectious | influenza, coughs, colds, diarrhoea, typhoid fever, tropical fevers, haemoptysis |
| antiparasitic | scabies, pediculosis |
| antiputrescent | |
| antiseptic | sprays to purify foul atmospheres, urinary infections |
| antispasmodic | colic, spasm due to infected enterocolitis |
| antiviral | warts, viral infections, see Table 4.5 |
| astringent | tooth socket pyorrhoea, diarrhoea |
| bactericidal | dysentery, enterocolitis, diarrhoea, cystitis (bacterial), urinary infection, vaginitis, leucorrhoea |
| carminative | flatulence |
| emmenagogic | oligomenorrhoea |
| digestive | see Table 4.6 |
| haemostatic | |
| larvicidal | |
| respiratory | bronchitis, pleurisy, sinus |
| tonic | impotence |
| uplifting, stimulating | fatigue, depression, asthenia, depression, tiredness |
| vermifuge | oxyures, amoebiasis |
• cinnamon bark oil may be adulterated with cinnamon leaf oil and oil of cassia
• following ingestion of cinnamon, contact dermatitis may flare up as pompholyx (Mitchell & Rook 1979 p. 787)
• neither the bark nor leaf oil should be used on young children (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 362) or old people
• undiluted cinnamon bark oil was mildly irritating when applied to the backs of hairless mice and strongly irritating under occlusion to both intact and abraded rabbit skin
• 8% in petrolatum did not cause irritation but gave sensitization reactions in humans (Opdyke 1975a p. 13)
• cases of contact sensitivity to a dentifrice containing the oil have been reported
• low level phototoxicity is reported
• cinnamon bark oil must be regarded as a potential sensitizer on the skin and therefore used with great caution
• IFRA recommends that cinnamic bark oil should be used on the skin at a maximum presence of less than 1% in a mix to reduce the risk of sensitization reactions (IFRA 1992)
• IFRA make no recommendation regarding the leaf oil but there is a distinct risk of skin irritation particularly in people with sensitive skins, and both of these oils – as with any of the essential oils used in aromatherapy – should be employed only with great care, technical knowledge and respect
• some practitioners use the essential oil orally in cases of urinary infection, since a urinary bacteriostatic activity has been demonstrated clinically (Bruneton 1995 p. 452)
• cinnamaldehyde has been shown experimentally to be CNS sedative in the mouse, and respiratory and myocardial stimulant in the dog (Bruneton 1995 p. 452)
• cinnamaldehyde is used mainly for flavouring cola-type drinks
• studies on cinnamon essential oil (unspecified) vapour showed complete inhibition of Aspergillus niger and A. flavus and a broad range of activity against a further 35 fungal species (Tiwari, Dixit & Dixit 1994)
• the wood and leaf oils of Cinnamomum zeylanicum were tested against Candida albicans, C. glabrata, Microsporum canis, Trichophyton rubris and T. mentagrophytes and found to be moderately active (Mastura et al 1999)
• essential oils of Cinnamomum verum, Syzygium aromaticum and their components cinnamal and eugenol respectively were studied for their effect on growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus parasiticus; the essential oils (above 250 ppm) and the two components (above 200 ppm) completely inhibited fungal growth and toxin production was not started (Bullerman, Lieu & Seier 1977)
• cinnamon bark oil and cinnamal were used in vapour toxicity tests against a range of fungi involved in respiratory tract mycoses; they were considered promising chemotherapeutic agents for respiratory tract mycoses as they could be inhaled and were lipolytic (Singh et al 1995)
• cinnamon oil and cinnamaldehyde were shown to have strong antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Lens-Lisbonne et al 1987)
• cinnamon bark oil orally might be best avoided in liver conditions, alcoholism or when taking paracetamol (Tisserand & Balacs 1995b p. 130) because of the glutathione-depleting action of cinnamaldehyde (Swales & Caldwell 1992)
monoterpenes camphene 3–10.3%, α-pinene 3.5–50%, p-menthatriene 3.5%, limonene 2.3%, γ-terpinene 1.6%, α-terpinene 0.7%, β-pinene 0.5%, β-phellandrene 0.5%, α-phellandrene 0.2%
sesquiterpenes alloaromadendrene 1.2%, α-cubebene 0.2%, α-amorphene 1.0%, α-copaene 0.6%, γ-muurolene 0.4%, δ-cadinene 0.3%, calacorene 0.3%
aromatic p-cymene 4.0%, α-o-dimethyl styrene 0.1%, α-p-dimethyl styrene 1.6%
α-campholytic acid, γ-campholytic acid
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | urinary tract infections, scarlet fever, see Table 4.2 |
| antihaemorraghic | menorrhagia, haemorrhage |
| anti-infectious | childhood ailments (chicken pox, measles, whooping cough) |
| anti-inflammatory | arteritis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflamed, sensitive skin, see Table 4.4 |
| antiviral | childhood viral infections, see Table 4.5 |
| cicatrizant | wounds, ulcers |
| diuretic | |
| neurotonic | regulates the parasympathetic system (sedative), chronic fatigue syndrome, anxiety, insomnia, multiple sclerosis |
• no contraindications known at normal aromatherapeutic dose (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 363)
• labdanum oil is reported to be non-irritant, non-sensitizing and non-phototoxic to human skin (Opdyke 1974a, Opdyke 1976f)
• labdanum oil is obtained by distilling the oleo resin, labdanum gum, which is derived from boiling the plant material in water (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 337) or by distilling the leaves and twigs directly (Lawless 1992 p. 115)
• the myrrh of the Bible is now recognized to be correctly translated as labdanum (Tucker 1986) – but see also observation under Commiphora myrrha
• labdanum oil is used in perfumes at a maximum of 0.8%
• labdanum essential oil is active against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans and other microbes (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 337); α-pinene, eugenol, 1,8-cineole and benzaldehyde were the most active components
monoterpenols (–)-linalool 1.4–16.9%, borneol 0–0.9%, geraniol 0–0.5%, nerol, (–)-α-terpineol 13–23%, α-fenchyl alcohol 0.9%, β-terpineol 0–3%
other 3-methyl-3-buten-2-ol 0.2%, 3-methyl-2-butanol 0.4%, ethyl alcohol, cis-3-hexanol, isoamyl alcohol, cis-p-menth-2-en1-ol, methyl alcohol, 2-methyl-2-butanol, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, 3-methyl-2-buten-1-ol
auropten, bergamottin, byakangelicin, 5-geranoxy-7-methoxycoumarin 2–2.5%, isopimpinellin, limettin, sesilin, bergapten, imperatorin, isoimperatorin, 8-geranoxypsoralen, 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin, bergaptol
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antirheumatic | rheumatism |
| antiscorbutic | scurvy |
| antiseptic | sick rooms |
| antiviral | colds, influenza, warts, verrucas, see Table 4.5 |
| aperitive, digestive | loss of appetite, nausea, see Table 4.6 |
| bactericidal | unspecified |
| diuretic | |
| febrifuge | fever |
| tonic |
• expressed lime essence contains more coumarins than other citrus oils and has been reported to be phototoxic to humans (Opdyke 1974s p. 731)
• cold-pressed lime essence contains similar compounds to the distilled oil but with fewer degradation products
• distilled lime oil is reported to be non irritating, non-sensitizing and non-phototoxic to human skin (Opdyke 1974t p. 729)
• the total annual yield of lime essential oil is 400 metric tons, of which distilled oil forms the greatest part: distilled oil is much cheaper than the expressed essence, which is preferred for aromatherapy
• the distilled oil is won from crushed whole fruit which is a byproduct of the juice industry and contains few or no coumarins
• cymene results from the unavoidable decomposition of citral, especially during distillation
• maximum level of use in perfumery is 1.5%
• the lime grown in Italy is known as Citrus limetta; the peel is cold pressed to give limette essence; this is given as antispasmodic by Franchomme & Pénoël (2001 p. 367) who recommend it for enterocolitis spasm
• Roulier (1990 p. 297) groups under one heading the properties of lime and limette essences
• Lawless (1992) says that the home uses of lime essence are the same as for lemon essence
monoterpenoid cis-linalool oxide
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| antidepressive* | nervous depression, neurasthenia |
| anti-infectious | colitis |
| antiparasitic* | |
| antitumoral | |
| digestive | liver and pancreas (diabetes), see Table 4.6 |
| hypotensor | hypertension |
| neurotonic* | fatigue, aids sleep, sympathetic nervous system imbalance, spasms, cardiovascular erethism, sustains uterus tone |
| phlebotonic | haemorrhoids, varicose veins |
| tranquillizing (light) | anxiety |
| unspecified | bronchitis |
| unspecified | tuberculosis |
• no irritation or sensitization at 4% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1976h); devoid of irritating properties (Peterson & Hall 1946)
• it is essential to use the genuine version of this much adulterated and simulated oil. Neroli Portugal, the oil distilled from the flowers of the sweet orange tree, is of a lesser quality
• the vapour of neroli showed strong antibacterial activity in vitro against one of five bacteria (Maruzella & Sicurella 1960)
• a 1:50 dilution of neroli oil exhibited antifungal activity against all of a group of eight phytopathogenic fungi (Rao & Joseph 1971)
• no phototoxic effects reported (Opdyke 1976h)
• Huang et al (1981) showed that myrcenol and nerol possessed antiasthmatic activity
• bactericidal action five times greater than that of phenol (Reynolds 1972)
• some antifungal action (Maruzzella 1960)
• tests (on mice) demonstrated that neroli oil, citronellal and phenyl ethyl acetate all had sedative properties (Jäger et al 1992)
• no irritation at 5% dilution when tested on humans (Fujii, Furukawa & Suzuki 1972)
• no irritation at 8% dilution when tested on humans (Ford, Api & Letizia 1992a)
• no phototoxic effects when tested on mice (Forbes, Urbach & Davies 1977)
• strong antibacterial and antifungal action (Lis-Balchin, Deans & Hart 1994, Maruzzella 1960, Maruzzella & Liguori 1958, Maruzzella & Sicurella 1960)
• the common name ‘petitgrain’ is used as a general term for oils distilled from the leaves of citrus trees, and so should be qualified to indicate from which tree the oil was obtained – orange (bitter or sweet), lemon, mandarin, etc.
β-carotene, flavonoids, fatty acids, triterpenoids
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anti-inflammatory | see Table 4.4 |
| anticoagulant | poor circulation |
| calming* | gastric spasm, nervousness, sympathetic nervous system, vertigo, palpitations |
| cholagogic | |
| digestive | constipation*, liver stimulant, indigestion*, see Table 4.6 |
| sedative* | anxiety |
| tonic* | tonic for the gums, mouth ulcers |
• no irritation or sensitization at 10% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1974g); cutaneous irritation has been reported (Schwarz, Tulipan & Peck 1947)
• a case of dermatitis has been reported in a girl employed to peel bitter orange (Murray 1921)
• phototoxic effects have been reported (Opdyke 1974g)
• it is lightly hypnotic (P Collin, personal communication)
• the majority of the compounds in this oil are present at less than 1%
• orange oil spray had an antidepressant effect on patients (Rovesti & Colombo 1973)
• dried orange peel is used commonly by Puerto Ricans to treat sleep disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory ailments and raised blood pressure (Reynolds 1972)
• mouse skin tumours have been shown to be promoted by orange peel oil, assumed to be due to (+)-limonene; the oil is a very weak promoter of skin papillomas and carcinomas; neither the oil nor (+)-limonene had promotional activity when given orally (Elegbede et al 1986)
• fractions of orange and lime oils (terpinyl formate, terpinyl acetate and limonene oxide) were found to possess antifungal properties and activity against Aspergillus, Fusarium and Rhizopus species (Appaiah et al 1983)
• essential oils of German chamomile, orange and mandarin were tested in aqueous gels at 5% concentration; all three gels produced an immediate hydrating effect on the skin, with German chamomile producing a more intense and longer lasting hydration (Monges et al 1994)
• exposure to ambient odour of C. sinensis oil had a relaxant and anxiety reducing effect on female patients in dental premises, masking the smell of eugenol (Lehrner et al 2000)
monoterpenes (95%) (+)-limonene >90%, β-myrcene 2.3%, camphene, α-pinene 0.9%, β-pinene 0.3%, cis- and trans-β-ocimenes, α-terpinolene trace, β-phellandrene 1.5%, sabinene 0.6%, γ-terpinene
sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene trace, valencene, α-ylangene (Ramaswami et al 1988 p. 951) aromatic p-cymene 0.2%
monoterpenoid trans-linalool oxide trace
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | unspecified |
| antidepressant | |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| antiseptic | sore throat |
| antispasmodic | stomach cramp, spasm, diarrhoea, constipation (normalizing effect on peristalsis) |
| calming, mildly | anxiety, nervousness, |
| sedative | insomnia |
| carminative | dyspepsia |
| hypnotic, mildly | palpitations |
| stomachic | chronic diarrhoea, constipation |
• the expressed oils of bitter orange, sweet orange and neroli are reported to be non-irritating and non-sensitizing to humans, but no phototoxicity is reported for expressed sweet orange oil despite the presence of coumarins (Opdyke 1974b p. 735, Opdyke 1974c p. 733, Opdyke 1976e p. 813)
• said by Franchomme & Pénoël (2001 p. 369) to be photosensitizing when used on the skin
• (+)-limonene (the major constituent of the oil) may cause contact dermatitis in humans
• orange oils, both bitter and sweet, are cold expressed from the fresh peel for aromatherapy use; alternatively the fresh or already pressed peel may be distilled to yield oils of a different quality; yet a third method is distillation of the essences resulting from the production of orange juice
• orange oil is a source of (+)-limonene used for the synthesis of carvone
• (+)-limonene is reported to have anticarcinogenic activity (Opdyke 1974c p. 733)
• its normalizing effect on peristalsis makes it helpful in the treatment of constipation and diarrhoea
• sweet orange is recommended for those suffering from a deficiency of magnesium and calcium pectate (Rouvière & Meyer 1983 p. 30)
• sweet orange is used widely for care of skin problems (Rouvière & Meyer 1983 p. 30)
• sweet orange oil has been reported to promote tumour formation on mouse skin treated with a primary carcinogen (Nacino et al 1975)
• both bitter and sweet orange oils and neroli oil have been reported to exhibit antifungal and antibacterial activities in vitro (Murdock & Allen 1960, Opdyke 1976h p. 813, Rao & Joseph 1971)
• reported maximum level of use of sweet orange oil is 0.75% in sauces
• 21 essential oils were tested against seven bacteria and orange oil was found to be one of the most active (Kivanc & Akgul 1986)
• antimicrobial action of lemon and orange oils was investigated against seven bacteria, three yeasts and three Aspergillus species; orange oil was more effective than lemon oil and only orange oil inhibited the Aspergillus species (Subba et al 1967)
• sweet orange oil exhibited strong fungitoxicity against several fungal pathogens including Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. parasiticus and was shown to be more effective than commercial synthetic fungicides (Singh et al 1993)
• aurapten has been indicated as a chemopreventative of skin tumorigenesis (Murakami et al 1997)
bergamottin 5% (5-methoxyfurano-2, 3, 6, 7-coumarin)
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| anti-infectious | wounds |
| antiseptic* | intestinal, gas, colic, gargles for mouth and throat |
| antispasmodic* | colic, indigestion |
| antiviral | herpes simplex I, see Table 4.5 |
| calming* | insomnia |
| cicatrizant | burns |
| photosensitizers | vitiligo |
| sedative | agitation |
| stomachic* | loss of appetite, difficult digestion |
| tonic | digestive system, central nervous system |
| unspecified | psoriasis |
• not normally used prior to exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light because it is phototoxic to human skin on account of the bergamottin and bergapten compounds, which accelerate sun tanning (Musajo, Rodighiero & Caporale 1953, 1954, Pathak & Fitzpatrick 1959, Zaynoun, Johnson & Frain-Bell 1977)
• for the same reason some perfumes (e.g. eau de Cologne) should be used with care
• there is a melanoma risk associated with sun creams containing bergamot oil, but thought to be so because people who use these creams are more likely to spend more time in the sun
• in 1995 the EU limited furanocoumarins to 1 ppm in sun products
• a rectified oil did not exhibit any phototoxic effects; berloque dermatitis is due to bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen) and this must be reduced to 0.001% to obviate bergapten dermatitis (Marzulli & Maibach 1970)
• no sensitization at 30% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1973c)
• undiluted oil is slightly irritating to skin
• distilled oil is obtained from the residue of cold extraction and small, unripe fruits which cannot be cold extracted
• bergamot oil is used in most perfumes as a natural fixative
• there are three cultivars of bergamot, namely Castagnaro, Feminello, Fantastico (by far the most popular (80%))
• natural bergamot is 60% of consumption, but reconstituted oils are often found
• there are approximately 350 constituents in bergamot essential oil
• in the presence of UVA, 5-methoxypsoralen is mutagenic in vitro (Averbeck et al 1990) and was carcinogenic when tested on mice (Young et al 1990, Zajdela & Bisagni 1981), but Mezzadra et al (1981) found no increase in cutaneous carcinogenesis in Calabrian workers in contact with bergamot oil and fruits
• berloque dermatitis, or bergapten dermatitis, is caused by exposure to UV light following bergapten application (Young et al 1990)
• the non-volatile residue of the cold-pressed oil has a CNS depressant action in rats (Occhiuto et al 1995)
• bergamottin has antiarrhythmic and antianginal effects on guinea pigs; the activity of bergamottin was equivalent to that of verapamil (Occhutio & Circosta 1996)
• tests showed that bergamottin (5-geranyloxypsoralen) possessed the characteristics of an antiarrhythmic drug with calcium antagonistic properties (class 4) (Occhutio & Circosta 1997)
• it has sedative action (Manley 1993)
• accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot oil have been reported: first, a woman used a bergamot ‘aromatherapy’ oil and then spent several hours outdoors on a sunny day; second, a woman took a sauna where bergamot oil was vaporized, then went directly to a tanning salon: both were treated with topical steroids and there was no residual hyperpigmentation (Kaddu, Helmut & Wolf 2001). [Author’s note: this could easily have been avoided by simply not exposing the skin to sunlight (or UV) for 2 hours. The sun tanning clinic was irresponsible.]
bergamottin 0.2%, citroptene, bergaptol trace, phellopterin, bergapten 0.6%, oxypeucedanin, imperatorin, isoimperatorin
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antianaemic | anaemia |
| antibacterial* | see Table 4.2 |
| anticoagulant | hypertension, phlebitis, poor circulation, thrombosis, varicose veins |
| antifungal | thrush, see Table 4.3 |
| anti-infectious | respiratory system |
| anti-inflammatory | boils, gout, insect bites, rheumatism, see Table 4.4 |
| antimelanistic | brown skin spots, freckles |
| antisclerotic | combats ageing process |
| antiseptic* (air) | crèches, burns units, hospital wards |
| antispasmodic | diarrhoea |
| antiviral | colds, herpes simplex I, verrucas, warts, see Table 4.5 |
| astringent | diarrhoea, seborrhoea (scalp and face), oily skin, broken capillaries |
| calming | headache, insomnia, nightmares |
| carminative | flatulence, aerophagy |
| digestive | nausea, painful digestion, loss of appetite, morning sickness, see Table 4.6 |
| diuretic | obesity, oedema |
| expectorant | respiratory system |
| immunostimulant | white cell deficiency |
| litholytic* | gallstones, urinary stones |
| pancreatic stimulant* | diabetes |
| phlebotonic | varicose veins, haemorrhoids |
| stomachic | gastritis, stomach ulcers |
• no irritation or sensitization at 10% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1974h)
• no phototoxic effects reported for distilled lemon oil (Opdyke 1974i)
• the expressed oil is phototoxic (Opdyke 1974h), therefore exposure to sunlight is to be avoided for 1 hour after skin application
• in the case of expressed oils it is very important to ensure that the fruits have not been sprayed with chemicals
• non-volatile constituents make up about 2% of expressed lemon oil
• weak antibacterial and antifungal activity (Deans & Ritchie 1987)
• (+)-limonene preparation used to dissolve gallstones (Reynolds 1972)
• lemon oil spray relieved depression of patients (Rovesti & Colombo 1973)
• oil of lemon was found to have expectorant activity in guinea pigs (Boyd & Pearson 1946)
• lemon oil exhibits antimicrobial activity (Poretta & Casolari 1966, Subba et al 1967)
• patch tests showed a barman, who complained of chronic eczematous lesions on the hands and occasional lip swelling and axillary itching, to be sensitive to lemon, lemongrass and neroli essential oils and the component geraniol; sensitivity was attributed to (+)-limonene (structurally similar to geraniol) (Audicana & Bernaola 1994)
• the phototoxic substances in lemon oil were found to be oxypeucedanin and bergapten; bergapten is four times more potent than oxypeucedanin (Naganuma et al 1985)
• inhaled lemon oil has been shown to increase the turnover of dopamine and serotonin in mice (Komiya et al 2006)
monoterpenes (+)-limonene 93–98%, α-thujene trace, camphene trace, α-pinene 0.6%, β-pinene 0.1–0.2%, sabinene 0.5%, β-myrcene 1.9%, β-phellandrene 1.3%, γ-terpinene 0.1–0.3%, α-terpinolene trace, α-phellandrene trace, δ-3-carene trace, α-terpinene trace, trans-β-ocimene 0.15%
aesculetine, auraptene, limettin, bergaptol, 7-geranoxycoumarin, marmesin, osthol, bergapten, bergamottin
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anti-infectious | colds, flu |
| antiseptic, air | room disinfection |
| aperitive | |
| cleansing | to liver, kidneys, blood |
| digestive | |
| diuretic | |
| phlebotonic | haemorrhoids, varicose veins, |
| slimming | cellulite, oedema |
| uplifting, refreshing | depression, headaches, exhaustion |
• grapefruit oil is non-irritating, non-sensitizing and non-phototoxic to humans (Opdyke 1974v p. 723)
• care should be taken with external use of expressed grapefruit oil because of possible photosensitization (Franchomme & Pénoël 2001 p. 368)
• during storage, and on chilling, a yellowish-brown flocculent precipitates which disappears again when warmed. This sediment may collect in cold storage for up to 2 years (95% of it after only 2 months)
• grapefruit oil can also be recovered by distillation of the crushed peel but has different properties, lower yield and is usually of a poorer quality
• distilled grapefruit oil has a higher aldehyde content than expressed oil, which may indicate that during expression aldehydes are lost by oxidation and reduction through the action of enzymes
• grapefruit oil has been reported to promote tumour formation on mouse skin (Rose & Field 1965)
• the aldehydes present make grapefruit essence prone to oxidation; it deteriorates upon exposure to moisture, air and light; the addition of antioxidants is not uncommon as this prolongs the shelf-life; they are effective in concentrations as low as 0.002%, which is far below the odour perception threshold
• used at a maximum level of 1% in perfumes
• grapefruit oil is not infrequently partially deterpenized; this is to be avoided for aromatherapy
aromatic methyl N-methyl anthranilate 0.1–0.7%, benzyl acetate
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antiepileptic | |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| antispasmodic | hiccoughs, stomach cramp, spasm |
| calming* | insomnia, nervous tension, cardiovascular erethism, excitability |
| cholagogic | |
| digestive | indigestion, constipation, see Table 4.6 |
| hepatic | |
| sedative | |
| stomachic | stomach pains |
• because mandarin oil may be phototoxic, exposure to sunlight should be avoided for 2 hours after skin application
• no irritation or sensitization at 8% dilution when tested on humans (Ford, Api & Letizia 1992b)
• no coumarins were detected in mandarin oil by Shu, Waradt & Taylor (1975) but Franchomme & Pénoël (2001 p. 368) identify a presence
• an aqueous gel containing 5% mandarin produced an immediate hydrating effect on skin (Monges et al 1994)
monoterpenes cis-β-ocimene 1.9%, trans-β-ocimene 1.27%, α-thujene 0.76%, β-myrcene 0.45%, limonene 0.42%, α-pinene
sesquiterpenes δ-elemene 28.79%, α-copaene 10.02–11.9%, β-elemene 6.19%, bourbonene 4.9%, α-bergamotene 4.9%, α-muurolene 0.14%, γ-cadinene 0.12%, curzerene (iso-furanogermacrene) 0.09–11.9%, α-caryophyllene 0.08%, heerabolene, β-elemene, lindestrene 3.5%, furanoeudesm-1,3-diene 12.5%
sesquiterpenones curzerenone 11.7%
other methyl isobutyl ketone 5.68%, 3-methoxy-10 (15)-dihydrofuranodien-6-one 1.5%, 1, 10 (15)-furanodien-6-one 1.2%, dihydropyrocurzerenone (dihydrofuranoeudesmadiene) 1.1%, 3-methoxy-10-methylenefuranogermacr-1-en-6-one 0.9%, furanodien-6-one 0.4%, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one 0.23%, 3 methoxy-4,5-dihydrofuranodien-6-one 0.2%, 3-methoxyfuranoguai-9-en-8-one 0.1%
2-methyl-5-isopropenylfuran 4.63%, 2-methylfuran 1.93%, 2-methyl-5-isopropylfuran 1.18%, 4,4-dimethyl-2-butenolide 1.04%, 2-phenyl-2-methylbutane 0.14%, rosefuran 0.09%, tridecane 0.09%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| anti-inflammatory | see Table 4.4 |
| antiseptic | urinary tract, cleansing sores, wounds, ulcers |
| antispasmodic | |
| astringent | |
| cardiac tonic | |
| carminative | flatulence, aerophagy |
| cicatrizant | wounds, skin diseases, mouth ulcers |
| emmenagogic? | |
| expectorant | bronchitis, laryngitis, influenza |
| sedative | anxiety, stress |
| stomachic | |
| tonic |
• the oil was not irritating when applied to the backs of hairless mice and pigs (Urbach & Forbes 1973); 5% in petrolatum was not irritating and 8% in petrolatum was nonsensitizing (Epstein 1973)
• no phototoxicity on mice and swine has been noted (Urbach & Forbes 1973)
• acute oral toxicity LD50 1.65 g/kg in rats (Moreno 1973)
• a flavour component of foods; a fragrance component or fixative in soaps, detergents, creams and lotions; used in perfumes (0.8% max.) (Opdyke 1976i)
• a leukocytogenic agent (increases number of white cells in blood) bacteriostatic against Staphylococcus aureus and other Gram-positive bacteria; perhaps the most widely used herbal antiseptic (Bartram 1995 p. 304)
• myrrh was always present in the coffins and as salve on the bodies in ancient Egypt
• Dioscorides mentioned myrrh as warming, astringent and ‘numbing’; it was to some extent used as an anaesthetic in operations
• the condemned Christ was offered wine spiced with myrrh to diminish his suffering on the cross (Mark 15: 23). This use of wine containing myrrh or incense at the Flagellation and Crucifixion seems to have been customary in ancient times in order to diminish to some extent the sufferings of martyrdom (Storp 1996)
• bisabol myrrh is believed by some to be the myrrh of the Bible (Holmes 1916) – but see observation under Cistus ladaniferus
umbelliferone trace, bergapten trace
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| analgesic | osteoarthritis, rheumatic pain |
| antibacterial* | see Table 4.2 |
| anti-infectious* | cystitis, influenza |
| anti-inflammatory | gastroenteritis, rheumatism, see Table 4.4 |
| antispasmodic | digestive, uterine |
| carminative* | flatulence, aerophagy |
| euphoric* | sadness |
| larvicidal | |
| neurotonic* | anorexia, debility, general fatigue, mental fatigue |
| stomachic | indigestion, sluggish digestion |
• no irritation or sensitization at 6% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1973d)
• the linalool content depends upon the ripeness of the fruits and the geographical source, as do the proportions of the constituents
• coriandrol is a synonym for (+)-linalool (Foster 1993b)
• the leaf oil has the fragrance of decylaldehyde and other fatty aldehydes (Prakash 1990)
• experimentally coriander is anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic (Foster 1993b)
• a Chinese remedy for measles, of value in diabetes (hypoglycaemic), gastroenteritis, also used for schistosomiasis (Bartram 1995 p. 128)
• coriander oil is larvicidal, bactericidal and cytotoxic (Abdullin 1962, Silyanovska et al 1969)
• coriander, laurel and sage oils, tested in vitro against 25 bacteria, demonstrated significant activity against seven species including S. aureus and exhibited antioxidant activity (Baratta, Dorman & Deans 1998)
monoterpenes (30–50%) β-pinene 14.4–18.7%, α-terpinene 12–28%, β-phellandrene 0.1–0.4%, α-terpinolene 0.04%, limonene 0.2–0.3%, α-pinene 0.3–0.9%, camphene 0.02%, β-myrcene 0.6–1%, δ-3-carene 0.5–0.8%, γ-terpinene 3.8–15.7%
sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene, isocaryophyllene 0.2–0.3%, cis-β-farnesene 0.01–0.5%, cadinene, α-cubebene, β-cubebene, copaene, trans-α-bergamotene 0.01–0.1%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| analgesic | |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| anti-inflammatory | enterocolitis, arthritis, rheumatism, hepatitis, orchitis, see Table 4.4 |
| antiseptic (urinary) | |
| antispasmodic | enterocolitis |
| aperitive | |
| calming* | insomnia, hyperthyroidism |
| carminative | aerophagy, flatulence |
| digestive | dyspepsia, colic, dyspeptic headache, see Table 4.6 |
• phototoxic effects have been reported for cumin oil but not for cuminal (Opdyke 1975a p. 12)
• cumin oil does not cause sensitization and may be mildly irritant on the skin (Tisserand & Balacs 1995b p. 205)
• weak antiviral activities in rats and antibacterial activity in vitro (Leung & Foster 1996 p. 200)
• cumin oil is used in veterinary digestive and carminative preparations
• the fruit essential oils of Apium graveolens and Cuminum cyminum were mixed in equal proportions and shown to have antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus; individually the oils were not as effective (Mishra, Samuel & Tripathi 1993)
• in vivo studies in animals showed cumin oil increased significantly glutathione S-transferase activity in the liver (Aruna & Sivaramakrishnan 1996)
• cumaldehyde isolated from cumin essential oil produced 100% inhibition of Aspergillus niger and A. flavus; the residual oil had no activity (Singh & Upadhyay 1991)
sandaracopimar-8(14),15-diene 1.3%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | see Table 4.2 |
| anti-infectious | bronchitis, influenza |
| antispasmodic | cramp |
| antisudorific | excessive perspiration |
| antitussive | whooping cough, bronchitis |
| astringent | broken capillaries |
| calming | regulates sympathetic nervous system, irritability |
| deodorant | sweaty feet |
| diuretic | oedema, rheumatic swelling |
| hormonelike | ovary problems, see Table 4.7 |
| neurotonic* | debility |
| phlebotonic* | varicose veins, haemorrhoids, poor venous circulation, protects capillary circulation |
• has a very remarkable astringent action, much superior to that of witch hazel (Duraffourd 1982)
• oil of cypress is a homologue of the ovarian hormone (Valnet 1980)
• no irritation or sensitization at 5% dilution when tested on humans (Opdyke 1978c)
• no phototoxic effects reported (Opdyke 1978c)
• found to be active against Staphylococcus aureus; antibacterial due to a synergy between citronellal and citronellol (90:7.5) producing a four-fold increase in activity (Low et al 1974)
monoterpenyl linalyl acetate, geranyl acetate 1–3%, citronellyl acetate 1%, lavandulyl acetate 0.6%
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| analgesic | |
| antibacterial | Gram +ve organisms (Gyane 1976, Kokate & Varma 1971, Ramadan et al 1972a), Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli (Onawunmi & Oguniana 1981), see Table 4.2 |
| antifungal | see Table 4.3 |
| anti-inflammatory | cellulite, inflamed arteries, see Table 4.4 |
| antioxidant | |
| antipyretic | |
| digestive | digestion problems, see Table 4.6 |
| insectifuge | see Table 4.8 |
| sedative | CNS depressant effects |
| vasodilator |
• mildly irritating when applied to the backs of hairless mice and pigs
• moderately irritating under 24-hour occlusion on both intact and abraded rabbit skin
• 4% in petrolatum is non-irritant and nonsensitizing on human skin (Opdyke 1976b p. 457)
• no phototoxicity has been recorded
• source of citral (used for the synthesis of ionones and vitamin A)
• used in perfumery, soap, laundry products and widely in food flavourings
• when taken internally caused damage to the intestines and death (Winter 1999 p. 276)
• citral has been reported to produce sensitization in humans when applied alone but to produce no such reactions when applied as a mixture with other compounds (Opdyke 1976a p. 197)
• a mild hormone-like (oestrogenic) action may be assumed from the citral content (Tisserand & Balacs 1995a p. 146)
• oral use of citral may cause a rise in ocular tension
• lemongrass oil is used in perfumes at a maximum of 0.7%
• the oil possesses biological activity against storage pests and has been used as a post harvest pesticide (Monograph 1990c p. 22)
• a geraniol chemotype exists with 35–50% geraniol, citral 10–20% and methyl eugenol (Atal & Bradu 1976)
• a borneol chemotype exists which has borneol 30% and citral 0% (List & Hörhammer 1969–1979)
• lemongrass oil was found to have a marked depressive effect on the central nervous system when tested on rats (Seth, Kokate & Varma 1976)
• Cymbopogon martinii and C. citratus were tested in vitro against Aspergillus, Candida and Mucor species, Trichophyton rubrum and T.
• viollacellium; both oils were fungicidal to all species tested (Singatwadia & Katewa 2001)
• lemongrass (scientific name not given) essential oil was shown to exhibit fungitoxicity against Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus and A. parasiticus; geraniol was identified as the active constituent (Misra et al 1988)
• citral possesses strong antiseptic and antibacterial activity (Onawunmi & Oguniana 1981)
• the essential oil is effective against Leishmania chagasi (Oliveira et al 2009)
• has larvicidal properties against Aedes aegypti (Cavalcanti et al 2004)
geranyl acetate 5-20%, prenyl isovalerate, amyl hexanoate, prenyl hexanoate, neryl formate 0.5-1%, geranyl formate 5-15%, geranyl butyrate 0.5-1%, geranyl isovalerate 0.5-1%, prenyl octanoate, geranyl isobutyrate, geranyl hexanoate 0.5-1%, p-mentha-1,8(10)-dien-9-yl acetate, geranyl octanoate 0.5-1%, methyl salicylate, methyl phenyl acetate, linalyl acetate
1,8-cineole, 6,7-geranyl epoxide, 2,3-geranyl epoxide, caryophyllene oxide,
| Properties | Indications |
|---|---|
| antibacterial | acne (Staphylococcus alba), dry and weeping eczema, enteritis, cystitis, urogenital infections, vaginitis |
| antifungal | leucorrhoea |
| antiseptic | red blotches on the skin, skin infections, ENT infections, bronchitis |
| antiviral | viremia virus, mononucleosis |
| anti-infectious | rhinopharyngitis, otitis, sinusitis, bronchitis, |
| cardiotonic | cardiac fatigue |
| cicatrisant | wounds, scars, cracked lips |
| immunostimulant | long convalescence |
| neurotonic, anxiolitic | depression, anorexia, stress, irritability, asthenia, PMT |
| uterotonic | facilitates labour |
• when undiluted oil was applied to both intact and abraded rabbit skin for 24 hours under occlusion moderate irritation occurred.
• undiluted oil was not irritating to the backs of hairless mice.
• 8% in petrolatum was non-irritating and non-sensitizing to human skin.
• no phototoxic effects are reported.
• used in aromatherapy for the treatment of skin infections, anorexia and as a tonic (Scimeau & Tétau 2009 p. 35)
• is sometimes adulterated with gingergrass oil (Cymbopogon martinii var. sofia) giving a low geraniol content; also with turpentine
• the odour is reminiscent of rose and so is sometimes used to falsify rose oil
• contains many heterocyclic compounds (about 45)
• Cymbopogon martinii and C. citratus were tested in vitro against Aspergillus, Candida and Mucor species, Trichphyton rubrum and T. viollacellium; both oils were fungicidal to all species tested (Singatwadia & Katewa 2001)
• palmarosa (scientific name not given – called lemongrass by the researchers) essential oil was shown to exhibit fungitoxicity against Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus and A. parasiticus; geraniol was identified as the active constituent (Misra et al 1988)
• palmarosa is used at 20% in almond oil for facial care; it is said to stimulate cellular regeneration.
• a source of high grade geraniol, much used in cosmetics, particularly as soap fragrance
• implicated in cross sensitization with lavender, lemongrass, geranium (Dooms-Goossens et al 1977)
• thought to have a normalising effect on the thyroid gland (Rose 1992 p. 122)
• palmarosa is much used in Tibetan medicine: said to be one of the top ten major essential oils