Appendix C Potential herb–drug interactions for commonly used herbs
General prescribing guidelines
• Exercise great caution when prescribing herbs for patients taking drugs with a narrow therapeutic window. These drugs may become dangerously toxic or ineffective with only relatively small changes in their blood concentrations. Examples include digoxin, warfarin, antirejection (immunosuppressive) drugs, many anti–HIV drugs, theophylline, phenytoin and phenobarbital. These patients need to be monitored on a frequent, regular basis.
• Exercise great caution when prescribing herbs for patients taking drugs:
These patients need to be monitored on a frequent, regular basis.
• Care should be exercised with patients who exhibit long-term use of laxative herbs or potassium-losing diuretics.
• Critical drugs should be taken at different times of the day from herbs (and food) to reduce chemical or pharmacokinetic interactions. They should be separated by at least 1 h, preferably more.
• Stop all herbs approximately 1 week before surgery. St Mary’s thistle may help reduce the toxic after-effects of anaesthetic drugs, so it can be taken up to the day before, and then again after surgery (it will not interact with the anaesthesia – see monograph).
• Carefully monitor the effects of drugs such as antihypertensives and antidiabetic drugs when combining with herbal remedies. The herbs may make them more or less effective. In the ideal situation the dose of the drug could be adjusted.
• Interactions may be dose related for the herb and the drug, for example, St John’s wort and digoxin (see monograph).
Assessment of risk and recommended action
The best information about HDIs comes from case observations (detailed and validated if possible) and clinical studies. Assessment of the risk of an adverse effect from a potential herb–drug interaction (as done for the table in this appendix) considers several factors:1,2
• The quality of the evidence, such as probable causality from case reports (probable/possible/unlikely) and confirmation and ideally repeated results from clinical studies with clinically relevant endpoints.A
A well-documented case report (especially with a positive rechallenge) does not always constitute a lower level of evidence than a negative result from a controlled trial. This is provided that all other possible causes have been considered and adequately dealt with The quality of the publication should also be considered – a poster from a scientific meeting is regarded as a lower level of evidence than well-documented case reports and controlled trials (due to lack of peer review). Is the pharmacokinetic study placebo-controlled?B Theoretical concerns based on pharmacological activity are considered the lowest quality of evidence and are often speculative at best.• The incidence of the interaction (what is the chance that the interaction occurs? How many well–documented cases are reported compared to the extent of use of the herb?)
• The seriousness of the potential adverse reaction, for example in order of increasing importance:
An insignificant clinical effect from an increased drug level without clinical symptoms or an increase in INR (international normalised ratio)Cup to 4 in the case of warfarinBy considering these factors and the totality of evidence, the risk of a herb–drug interaction would range from very low (such as where evidence is poor or lacking and the effect is clinically irrelevant) to contraindicated (such as where the evidence consists of controlled, published interaction studies with a clinically relevant endpoint, the adverse outcome is clinically very relevant, including decreasing plasma levels of drugs being prescribed for serious conditions). An altered plasma drug level in healthy volunteers or even patients without a substantial clinical effect would be considered low or medium risk.
Probe drugs
Studies using probe drugs (which assess individual cytochrome P450 enzyme activity, and hence potential interactions for drugs that utilise that enzyme) are only included in the chart where the drug is currently used clinically. For example, midazolam (a benzodiazepine, used clinically as a sedative and frequently in anaesthesia) is metabolised by CYP3A4 and can be used to assess the interaction of other drugs and herbs with this enzyme (e.g. another drug or herb may inhibit or induce CYP3A4 resulting in increased or decreased plasma drug levels, respectively). A number of drugs are used as probes for CYP3A4 activity such as nifedipine and alprazolam. Other examples of probe drugs included in the chart due to their therapeutic activity include tolbutamide (for CYP2C9 activity), omeprazole (CYP2C19) and talinolol (P-glycoprotein). (P-glycoprotein helps transport molecules across biological membranes and hence can affect the absorption and elimination of a drug.) Although there are a large number of cytochrome P450 enzymes, more than 90% of the metabolism of drugs is due to the activity of CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1 and CYP3A4. For a comprehensive review of the effect of herbs on probe drugs in clinical trials the reader is referred to the following systematic review: Kennedy DA, Seely D. Expert Opin Drug Saf 9(1): 79-124, 2010.
Midazolam is used clinically as a sedative and frequently in anaesthesia. Such studies ideally need to have administered the herb for at least 7 days and investigated drug clearance by using the area under the serum concentration–time curve (AUC).
The US Food and Drug Administration has defined the clinical significance of an interaction that causes an increased plasma level of oral midazolam. The interaction is weak (hence low risk) if the increase in the AUC is between 1.25–-and 2-fold; AUC changes ranging from 2- to 5-fold are moderate (hence medium risk) and greater than a 5-fold increase is a strong interaction and may result in contraindication.3 An increase below 1.25-fold, in other words an increase in the plasma level of midazolam by up to 25%, means no interaction has occurred (i.e. it is clinically insignificant).
HDI chart examples: how the recommended action is determined
Contraindicated
St John’s Wort and Digoxin
• Three clinical studies (two controlled with placebo) found St John’s wort extract high in hyperforin sharply decreased drug levels. The decrease in drug levels increased with increasing doses of St John’s wort.
The evidence is considered to be strong and the adverse outcome is potentially serious, in addition to the drug having a narrow therapeutic window (small changes in blood levels may have considerable pharmacological effect).
Dan Shen and Warfarin
• Three case reports of bleeding complications and elevated INR values (above 5.5) were observed. INR returned to normal target range after cessation of herb. Dan shen was the only substance introduced after the INR was initially stabilised.
Reasonably strong case report evidence and adverse effects considered serious.
Monitor (medium level of risk)
St John’s Wort and Amitriptyline
Evidence considered moderate, given the wide use of the herb. Assigned a medium rather than a low risk due to seriousness of potential adverse outcome.
Garlic and HIV Protease Inhibitors
• Clinical study (2000; not controlled with placebo) with healthy volunteers found an allicin-producing garlic tablet caused significant decrease (from baseline) in plasma drug concentration.
• A probe drug study (2010) also with healthy volunteers taking an allicin-producing garlic tablet, found a non–significant decrease overall in AUC (15%) with large variability (AUC increased in several volunteers).
Evidence considered moderate, as there is an absence of case reports despite the fact that garlic is widely consumed in the diet. Assigned medium rather than low risk due to potential adverse outcome.
Ginkgo and HIV Non–nucleoside Transcriptase Inhibitors
This is the first case reported for this interaction. The decrease in drug levels coincided approximately when ‘the patient appeared to be using Ginkgo’. The long history of stable drug levels prior to the ingestion of Ginkgo, and the patient not taking medications other than antiretroviral therapy are suggestive of a causal effect. Patient ‘successfully switched to alternative antiretroviral therapy’. Despite the lack of strong causality, assigned medium due to potential adverse outcome.
Monitor (low level of risk)
St John’s Wort and Omeprazole
• Clinical study with healthy volunteers found that St John’s wort extract caused significant decrease in plasma drug concentration.
Evidence considered preliminary or moderate at best. Assigned low due to a lack of seriousness of effects from a potential interaction.
St John’s Wort and Anticonvulsants
• Theoretical concern raised in 2000 by regulators on the basis that St John’s wort may induce cytochrome P450, the pathway by which some drugs including anticonvulsants are metabolised, thereby potentially increasing their breakdown and reducing their blood concentrations.
• No effect on carbamazepine pharmacokinetics found in a 2000 clinical study with healthy volunteers (not controlled with placebo).
• One case reported with few details in 2007 in which an increase in the frequency and severity of seizures was reported in a patient taking several anticonvulsants, two of which are not metabolised by cytochrome P450.
• A probe drug study (2004) found increased excretion of a mephenytoin metabolite in some volunteers – those with a CYP2C19 wild-type genotype (extensive metabolisers). In poor metabolisers (mutant genotype; having a deficiency of CYP2C19 activity) there was no significant alteration. (Mephenytoin is almost exclusively metabolised by CYP2C19.) The clinical significance is unknown, as plasma drug levels of mephenytoin were not measured.
Evidence considered low, with a clinical study supporting a lack of interaction despite the theoretical concern. Due to the recognised ability of St John’s wort to interact with some drugs metabolised via cytochrome P450 (particularly CYP3A4), and the importance of maintaining stable blood levels of anticonvulsants this interaction was assigned low rather than very low risk. The 2008 case report does not support the theoretical concern (different metabolism). Additional and well-documented case reports would be required to alter the risk assessment.
Ginkgo and Tolbutamide
• Clinical study with healthy volunteers found a high dose of Ginkgo (50:1 extract: 360 mg/day, equivalent to 18 g/day of dried leaf) decreased the area under concentration versus time curve by 16% (statistically significant, but being less than a 20% decrease this is not regarded as clinically significant). No statistically significant differences found for other pharmacokinetic parameters.
• To assess the effect on the pharmacodynamics of tolbutamide, volunteers were also given a 75 g oral dose of glucose. When combined with Ginkgo the blood glucose lowering effect of tolbutamide was less than with tolbutamide alone, but the difference was not even statistically significant.
The decrease in exposure to tolbutamide caused by a high dose of Ginkgo did not have a significant effect on the ability of tolbutamide to lower glucose in healthy volunteers. Assigned low risk until information in diabetic patients becomes available.
Monitor (very low level of risk)
Siberian Ginseng and Digoxin
• One case report: possibly increased plasma concentration of drug but ECG (electrocardiogram) unchanged. The possibility that the herb may have interfered with the digoxin measurement was also raised, and later supported.
• No effect on plasma concentration of drug in later controlled clinical trial.
The case report provides minimal evidence, with a lack of clinical relevance (ECG results) and the possibility of testing interference. The clinical trial results reduce the strength of evidence.
General reference
Braun L. Herb Drug Interaction Guide for Pharmacists. FH Faulding, August 2000; Fugh-Berman A. Lancet. 2000 355(9198):134–138.
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