Resin acids are the carboxylic acid group containing resinous substances which may or may not have association with phenolic compounds. These compounds are found in free states or as the esters derivatives. Being acidic compounds they are soluble in aqueous solution of alkalies producing frothy solution. Resin acids can be derivatized to their metallic salts known as resinates, which finds their use in soap, paints and varnish industries. The abietic acid and commiphoric acid present in colophony and myrrh respectively are the examples of resin acids.

Resin esters are the esters of the resin acids or the other aromatic acids like benzoic, cinnamic, salicylic acids, etc. They are sometimes converted to their free acids by the treatment with caustic alkali. Dragon’s blood and benzoin are the common resin ester containing drugs.

Resin alcohols or resinols are the complex alcoholic compounds of high molecular weight. Like resin acids they are found as free alcohols or as esters of benzoic, salicylic, and cinnamic acids. They are insoluble in aqueous alkali solution but are soluble in alcohol and ether. Resinols are present in benzoin as benzoresinol and in storax as storesinol.

Resin phenols or resinotannols are also high molecular weight compounds which occur in free states or as esters. Due to phenolic group they form phenoxoids and become soluble in aqueous alkali solution. However they are insoluble in water but dissolve in alcohol and ether. Resinotannols gives a positive reaction with ferric chloride. The resinotannol are found in balsam of Peru as peruresinotannol, in Tolu balsam as toluresinotannol and in benzoin as siaresinotannols.

Resins sometimes get combined with sugars by glycosylation and produce glucoresins. Glycoresins can be hydrolysed by acidic hydrolysis to the glycone and aglycone.

Oleoresins are the homogenous mixture of resin with volatile oils. The oleoresins posses an essence due to volatile oils. A trace amount of gummy material may sometimes be found in oleoresins. Turpentine, ginger, copaiba, Canada resin are few important examples of oleoresins.

Gum resins are the naturally occurring mixture of resins with gums. Due to solubility in water, gums can be easily separated out from resin by dissolving the gum in water. Ammoniacum is an example of natural gum resin.

Oleogum resins are the naturally occurring mixtures of resin, volatile oil, and gum. The example includes gum myrrh, asafoetida, gamboage, etc. Oleogum resins oozes out from the incisions made in the bark and hardens.

Balsams are the naturally occurring resinous mixtures which contain a high proportion of aromatic balsamic acids such as benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and their esters. Balsams containing free acids are partially soluble in hot water. Some important balsams containing drugs are balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu, benzoin, and storax. The oleogum resin containing drugs like copaiba and Canada are sometimes wrongly referred to as balsams.

Devil’s dung; food of the gods; asafoda; asant; hing (Hindi).

Asafoetida is an oleo-gum resin obtained as an exudation by incision of the decapitated rhizome and roots of Ferula asafoetida L, F. foetida, Royel, F. rubricaulis Boiss, and some other species of Ferula, belonging to family Apiaceae.

The plant grows in Iran, Turkestan and Afghanistan (Karam and Chagai districts).

Asafoetida occurs as a soft solid mass or irregular lumps or ‘tears’, sometimes almost semiliquid. Tears are rounded or flattened and about 5–30mm in diameter, grayish-white or dull yellow or reddish brown in colour.

Asafoetida contains volatile oil (4–20%), resin (40–65%), and gum (25%). The garlic-like odour of the oil is due to the presence of sulphur compounds. The main constituent of the oil is isobutyl propanyl disulphide (C₆H₁₆S₂). The three sulphur compounds, such as, 1-methylpropyl-1-propenyl disulphide, l-(methylthio)-propyl-1-pro-penyl disulphide, and l-methyl-propyl 3-(methylthio)-2-propenyl disulphide have also been isolated from the resin; the latter two have pesticidal properties. The flavour is largely due to R-2-butyl-l-propenyl disulphide and 2-butyl-3-methylthioallyl disulphide (both as mixtures of diastereoisomers).

Asafoetida is used as carminative, expectorant, antispasmodic, and laxative as well as externally to prevent bandage chewing by dogs; for flavouring curries, sauces, and pickles; as an enema for intestinal flatulence, in hysterical and epileptic affections, in cholera, asthma, whooping cough, and chronic bronchitis.

Galbanum and ammoniacum are oleo-gum-resins obtained, respectively, from Ferula galbaniflua and Dorema ammoniacum. Galbanum contains umbelliferone and umbelliferone ethers, up to 30% of volatile oil containing numerous mono-and sesquiterpenes, azulenes, and sulphur-containing esters. Ammoniacum contains free salicylic acid but no umbeiliferone. The major phenolic constituent is ammoresinol. An epimeric mixture of prenylated chromandiones termed ammodoremin is also present. The volatile oil (0.5%) contains various terpenoids with ferulene as the major component.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Madhudoshantak (Jamuna Pharma).

Peruvian Balsam; Indian Balsam; China oil; Black Balsam; Honduras Balsam; Surnam Balsam; Peru Balsam; Balsamum peruvianum.

Peru balsam is obtained by incision of the stem of Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae (Royle) Klotsch at high temperature, belonging to family Papilionaceae.

The plant is most widely found in Colombia, Venezuela, Central America (San Salvador), in forests near Pacific coast and cultivated in West Indies, Cuba, Florida, and Sri Lanka.

M. pereirae is a large tree, about 25 meters in height. Peru balsam is a pathological resin and is formed when the plant is injured. The 10-years old tree is beaten on four sides in November or December. The cracked bark is scorched with torch to separate it from the trunk. Within a week the bark is dropped from trunk and the balsam begins to flow from the exposed wood. The injured part is covered with cloths or rags in which the resin is absorbed. When the cloths are saturated with exudates, they are removed from time to time and boiled with water. On cooling the water extracted balsam is settled out which is removed, strained, packed in tin cans, and exported to get balsamo de trapo.

Fresh Peru Balsam is a soft, yellow, viscous syrupy liquid, or semisolid. On keeping it becomes dark brown, or nearly black, brittle solid. It softens on heating in which crystals of cinnamic acid may be visible under microscope, it does not stick, has an empyreumatic, aromatic, vanilla-like odour, and a bitter, acrid, persistent taste. It is insoluble in water and olive oil but soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and glacial acetic acid, usually with a slight opalescense.

Peru Balsam is used as miticide, to aid in healing of indolent wounds, as scabicide and parasiticide, in skin catarrh, diarrhoea, ulcer therapy, as local protectant, and rubefacient. It is an antiseptic and vulnerary and as a stimulating expectorant. It is also employed in perfumery and some chocolate flavourings, also in making of odours.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Aubrey Organics Natural Sun SPF 12 Vitamin C Enriched.

Tolu Balsam; Thomas balsam; opobalsam; resin tolu; balsam of tolu; balsamum tolutanum.

Tolu Balsam is obtained by incision of stem of Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms., belonging to family Papilionaceae.

The plant grows in Colombia (near lower Magdalena and Canca rivers), West Indies, Cuba, Venezuela, and Peru. The trees are cultivated in the West Indies.

Tolu Balsam is a pathological resin and is formed in trunk tissues as a result of injuries. It is collected all the year except the period of heavy rains by making V-shaped incisions in the bark and sap wood. Calabash cups are placed to receive the flow of balsam. Many other incisions are made on higher portion on the trees. Collected balsam is transferred into larger tin containers and exported.

Tolu Balsam occurs as soft, yellowish-brown or brown, semisolid, or plastic solid, transparent in thin layers, brittle when old, dried or kept in cold, odour aromatic, and taste is aromatic, vanilla-like, and slightly pungent. It is insoluble in water and petroleum ether; soluble in alcohol, benzene, chloroform, ether, glacial acetic acid, and partially soluble in carbon disulphide and NaOH solution. On keeping it turns to a brown, brittle solid. It softens on warming. Under microscopical examination shows crystals of cinnamic acid, amorphous resin and vegetable debris.

Balsam of Tolu is used as an expectorant, stimulant, and antiseptic. It is an ingredient of cough mixtures and compound benzoin tincture. It is also used as a pleasant flavouring agent in medicinal syrups, confectionery, chewing gums, and perfumery.

Balsam of Tolu is mainly adulterated with colophony and exhausted tolu balsam. In exhausted tolu balsam, the cinnamic acid is removed previously by heating. The adulterant can be identified by heating it with water and observing under microscope; crystals of cinnamic acid are not seen.

Indian hemp, Indian cannabis, hashish, bhang, ganja, charas, Cannabis indica, marihuana.

Cannabis consists of dried flowering tops of the pistillate plants of Cannabis sativa Linn., belonging to family Cannabinaceae.

Cannabis occurs in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, Central America, United States, East Africa, South Africa, and Asia Minor.

Cannabis is an annual dioecious herb, which is cultivated by seed sowing method. The seeds are sown on seedbeds in the month of August and after a month the seedlings are transplanted into the open field. The male plants, which have attained the maturity, are taken and shaken over the female plants so as to facilitate pollination. The flowering tops of female plants are collected in February or March. They are made into bundles and treated under the foot to form flat masses. The flat masses are dried under the shade to obtain ‘ganja’. In India the tops are treated to form rounded masses called as ‘ganja’.

The following products are prepared from Cannabis.

Cannabis occurs in flattened, rough, dull dusky green masses. The dried resin is hard, brittle, and does not stick. The flat-ganja is flattened mass of a dull green colour. The odour is very marked in the fresh drug and becomes faint afterwards; taste is slightly bitter.

Cannabis consist of 15 to 20% resin, the resins are amorphous, semisolid, brown coloured, soluble in ether, alcohol, and carbon disulphide. The most important active constituents present in cannabis are: cannabidiol, cannabidolic acid, cannabinol, cannabichromene, and trans-tetrahydrocannbinol. Cannabis also contains Cannabidiolic acid, cannabidiol A 9, tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabinol A9, Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), volatile oil, trigonelline, and cholene.

Cannabis resin is tonic, sedative, analgesic, intoxicant, stomachic, antispasmodic, antianxiety, anticonvulsant, antitussive, and narcotic. Cannabis causes only pshycic dependence and act upon the nervous system.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Bilwadi churna (Baidyanath).

Chillies; cayenne pepper; red peppers; Spanish pepper; mirch (Hindi); capsicum fruits; Fructus Capsici.

Capsicum consists of the dried, ripe fruits of Capsicum minimum and Capsicum annum Linn., belonging to family Solanaceae.

Capsicum is native of America and cultivated in tropical regions of India, Japan, southern Europe, Mexico, Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Sierra Leone), and Sri Lanka.

Capsicum is cultivated mostly as a rainfed crop. In the Gangetic area, it is a cold weather crop. The crop is raised on a variety of soils, for example, ordinary red loams, black soils and clayey loams. Good drainage is essential and water-logging is detrimental. Seedlings are first raised in a nursery. Seeds obtained from selected pods and mixed with ashes are sown by broadcasting. Germination occurs in about a week. The field is ploughed and manured with compost. The field is irrigated once a day until the plants are established. Flowering starts when the plants are 2.5–3.5 months old. Dew and heavy rain at flowering time are injurious. Ripe and nearly ripe fruits are picked at intervals of 5, 10, and 20 days.

Capsicum is 5–12cm long, 2–4cm wide, globular, ovoid, or oblong in shape, pericarp is shrievelled, orange or red in colour, pedicel is prominent and bent. The calyx is toothed. The amount of calices and pedicels should not exceed beyond 3%. Internally the fruits are divided into two halve parts by a membranous dissepiment to which the seeds are attached. The seeds are reniform, flattened, 3–4mm long, with a coiled embryo and oily endosperm. Capsicum has characteristic odour and an intense pungent taste.

Fig. 18.5 Capsicum fruit

Capsicum contains fixed oils (4–16%), oleoresin, carotenoids, capsacutin, capsico (a volatile alkaloid), thiamine, volatile oil (1.5%), and ascorbic acid (0.2%). The resin contains an extremely pungent principle, capsaicin, (decylenic vanillyl amide) (about 0.5%). Capsaicin retains its characteristic pungency in a dilution of 1 part in 10 million parts with water. Capsanthin is the main carotenoid of red fruits. It also occurs as monoester and diester along with cryptocapsin. Other carotenoids include zeaxanthin. capsorubrin, rubixanthin, phylofluene, capsanthin-5,6-epoxide, capsanthin-3.6-epoxide, lutein, cryptoxanthin, α- and β-carotenes, capsorubin, and few xanthophylls. The carbohydrates reported in chilies are fructose, galactose, sucrose, etc. Tocopherol (vitamin E) is present in trace amounts (∼2.4mg/100g).

Capsicum has been used externally as stimulant, counter irritant, rubefacient, in sore throat, scarlatina, hoarseness, and yellow fever; internally it is used as carminative, stomachic, dyspepsia, and flatulence. In the form of ointment, plaster and medicated wool it is used for the relief of rheumatism and lumbago. Capsaicin is used for the treatment of migraine and cluster headache, and for some patients with neurogenic ladder dysfunction.

Japanese Chillies (C. frutescens) are about 3–4cm long. They are usually free from pedicels and calices and have a bright red pericarp. They possess about one-quarter of the pungency of the African Chillies.

Natal Capsicums are larger than the Bombay variety, being up to 8cm long. They have a very bright red, transparent pericarp. They are much less pungent than chillies.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Deepact (Lupin Herbal Laboratory) and Capsigyl-D (Shalaks), a topical antirheumatic cream.

Bitter apple, Fructus colocynthidis, Colocynthis.

Colocynth is the dried pithy pulp of the ripe fruits of Citrullus colocynthis Schrader, belonging to family Cucurbitaceae.

Cultivated in Asia, Africa, South Europe; mainly in Syria, Cyprus, and Egypt. In India, it is cultivated in Gujarat, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, etc.

The plant is perennial prostrate herb. It is rarely cultivated. The fruits are fleshy in nature and are collected in autumn, when they are ripe. The ripe fruits are yellow in colour. The fruits are peeled using a knife and dried under the sun or artificially.

The fleshy fruits are 5 to 8cm in diameter, subspherical berry, almost white, and the density is very less. On the outer surface it has rind and impressions of the knife. Three splits of placenta, which run from centre to periphery is seen if the fruit is cut transversely. It has two groups of seeds near the periphery and the remaining portion filled with pithy parenchyma. It has characteristic odour and intense bitter taste.

Fig. 18.6 Citrullus colocynthis

Alkaloid is the main constituent present in the pulp of colocynth. Colocynth also contains amorphous resins that are ether and chloroform soluble. The other constituents are a crystalline dihydroxy alcohol (citrullol), glycosides of α-elaterin or cucurbitacin E, elatericin B or cucurbitacin, dihydroelatericin B, or cucurbitacin L, fixed oil, and starch.

It is a hydrogogue purgative; stimulates or irritates the gastrointestinal tract. It is also prescribed with carminatives and used as an insecticidal.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as The Body Pure (HerbsForever Inc.).

Rosin, yellow resin; Abietic anhydride; colophony resin; amber resin; resin; coloponium.

Colophony is a solid residue left after distilling off the volatile oil from the oleoresin obtained from Pinus palustris (long leaf pine) and other species of Pinus such as P. pinaster, P. halepensis, P. massoniana, P. tabuliformis, P. carribacea var., belonging to family Pinaceae.

The genus Pinus is widely found in United States, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, New Zealand, China, India (Himalayan region), and Pakistan. Colophony is chiefly produced in the United States contributing about 80% of world supply. Other countries producing the resin are China, France, Spain, India, Greece, Morocco, Honduras, Poland, and Russia.

The collection of the oleoresin is very laborous procedure. Although Colophony is a normal (Physiological) resin of Pinus species, its amount is increased by injuring the plant. For its collection a few-feet long groove or blaze is made in the bark with the help of knife or some other instrument. A metal or earthenware cup is attached below the groove by nails. The cup is adjusted accordingly when the size of groove increases. The resin is taken out at different intervals and sent for further processing.

This method is used in America, European countries, India, and Pakistan. The 60–100cm long blaze or longitudinal groove is cut with a suitable instrument. It is enlarged at intervals and in about four years is about 4 m long. The metal or earthenware cups are attached to the trunk by nails and one or two strips of galvanized iron are placed above each to direct the flow of oleoresin. As the grooves are lengthened the cups are moved higher up the tree and new grooves are started when the old ones become exhausted or collection is difficult. The cups are emptied at intervals and the oleoresin sent to the distillery. Trees can be tapped by this method for about 40 years.

The crude oleoresin arrives at the distillery in barrels. It is mixed with about 20% by weight of turpentine in a heated stainless steel vessel and allowed to stand to separate water and other impurities. The diluted oleoresin is then transferred to copper or stainless steel stills and the turpentine is removed by steam distillation. When distillation is complete the molten resin is run through wire strainers into barrels, in which it cools and is exported.

Colophony occurs as translucent, hard, shiny, sharp, pale yellow to amber fragments, fracture brittle at ordinary temperature, burns with smoky flame, slight turpentine-like odour and taste, melts readily on heating, density 1.07–1.09. Acid number is not less than 150. It is insoluble in water but freely soluble in alcohol, benzene, ether, glacial acetic acid, oils, carbon disulphide, and alkali solutions.

Colophony is used as stiffening agent in ointments, adhesives, plasters and cerates and as a diuretic in veterinary medicine. Commercially it is used to manufacture varnishes, printing inks, cements, soap, sealing wax, wood polishes, floor coverings, paper, plastics, fireworks, tree wax, rosin oil, and for water proofing cardboard.

Rhizoma zingiberis, Zingibere.

Ginger consists of the dried rhizomes of the Zingiber officinale Roscoe, belonging to family Zingiberaceae.

It is mainly cultivated in West Indies, Nigeria, Jamaica, India, Japan, and Africa.

The rhizomes are 5 to 15cm long, 3 to 6cm wide, and about 1.5cm thick. The Jamaica ginger occurs as branches. It has a sympodial branching and the outer surface has buff yellow colour with longitudinally striated fibres. Small circular depressions at the portion of the buds are seen and fractured surface shows narrow bark, a well-developed endodermis, and a wide stele, with scattered small yellowish points of secretion cells and grayish points of fibrovascular bundles. The ginger has agreeable and aromatic odour and pungent and agreeable taste.

Fig. 18.8 Zingiber officinale

The cork is the outermost layer with irregular parenchymatous cells and dark brown colour. The inner cork is few layered, colourless parenchymatous cells arranged in radial rows. Cork is absent in Jamaica ginger. Phellogen is indistinct and the cortex consists of thin-walled rounded parenchyma with intercellular spaces consisting of abundant starch grains. The starch grains are simple, ovate, or sac shaped. Numerous yellowish brown oleoresin are also present along with the collateral fibro vascular bundles. The endodermis is distinct without starch and consists of single layer of tangentially elongated cells containing suberin. Just below the endodermis it has the ground tissue, a ring of narrow zone of vascular bundle which is not covered with sclerenchymatous fibres. The ground tissues contain the large parenchymatous cells rich in starch, oleoresin, fibrovascular bundles. The phloem has well-developed sieve elements, and the xylem consist of vessels, tracheids either annual or spiral, or reticular in nature without lignin. The fibres are unlignified, pitted, and separate.

Ginger contains 1 to 2% volatile oil, 5 to 8% pungent resinous mass and starch. The volatile oil is responsible for the aromatic odour and the pungency of the drug is due to the yellowish oily body called gingerol which is odourless. Volatile oil is composed of sesquiterpene hydrocarbon like α-zingiberol; α-sesquiterpene alcohol α-bisabolene, α-farnesene, α-sesquiphellandrene. Less pungent components like gingerone and shogaol are also present. Shogal is formed by the dehydration of gingerol and is not present in fresh rhizome.

Ginger may be adulterated by addition of ‘wormy’ drug or ‘spent ginger’ which has been exhausted in the extraction of resins and volatile oil. This adulteration may be detected by the official standards, for alcohol-soluble portion, watersoluble portion, total ash and water-soluble ash. Sometimes pungency of exhausted ginger is increased by the addition of capsicum.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Pain kill oil, J.P. Liver syrup (Jamuna Pharma), Abana, Gasex (Himalaya Drug Company), Hajmola (Dabur), Strepsils (Boots Piramal Healthcare), and Sage Massaj oil (Sage Herbals).

Gumgugul, Salai-gogil.

Guggal is a gumresin obtained by incision of the bark of Commiphora mukul (H. and S.) Engl., belonging to family Burseraceae.

The tree is a small, thorny plant distributed throughout India.

Guggal tree is a small thorny tree 4 to 6 feet tall branches slightly ascending. It is sometimes planted in hedges. The tree remains without any foliage for most of the year. It has ash-coloured bark, and comes off in rough flakes, exposing the innerbark, which also peels off. The tree exudes a yellowish resin called gum guggul or guggulu that has a balsamic odor. Each plant yields about one kilogram of the product, which is collected in cold season.

Guggal occurs as viscid, brown tears; or in fragment pieces, mixed with stem, piece of bark; golden yellow to brown in colour. With water it forms a milk emulsion. It has a balsamic odour and taste is bitter, aromatic.

Guggal contains gum (32%), essential oil (1.45%), sterols (guggulsterols I to VI, β-sitosterol, cholesterol, Z-and E-guggulsterone), sugars (sucrose, fructose), amino acids, α-camphorene, cembrene, allylcembrol, flavonoids (quercetin and its glycosides), ellagic acid, myricyl alcohol, aliphatic tetrols, etc.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as Arogyavardhini Gutika (Dabur) and Abana, Diabecon, Diakof (Himalaya Drug Company).

Radix ipomoeae, Orizaba jalap root, Mexican scammony root, Mexican scammony, Ipomoea radix.

Ipomoea consists of the dried tuberous roots of Ipomoea orizabensis Ledenois., belonging to family Convolvulacae.

It is mainly found in Mexico (Orizabs), Mexican Andes.

Ipomoea is perennial climbing twinner. It produces a large, woody and tuberous root. The Roots are dug, washed, cut into slices and dried.

Ipomoea roots are large and fusiform, with 3 to 10cm thick and about 20cm long. They occur as irregular pieces, greyish brown in colour, with slight odour and slight acrid taste.

The cork is thin-walled cells, which is lignified. The parenchyma consists of numerous latex cells, starch grains, and calcium oxalate crystals. The starch occurs in group of two to six compounds, the calcium oxalate present is of prismatic type. In the middle it has the primary xylem surrounded by the secondary xylem. The vascular bundles are also present in numerous amounts,

Ipomoea consist of 10 to 20% resin, volatile oil and some fatty acids. The resin has an ether soluble portion and ether insoluble portion. Both the portions contain jalapin; a mixture of acidic glycosides. Ether soluble portion has jalapinolic acid, whereas in ether insoluble part it has hydroxy fatty acids, that is, ipurolic acid and convolvullinic aci

Ipomoea resin is strong cathartic.

Radix jalapae, Jalap root, Vera cruz or Mexican Jalap.

Jalap consists of dried tuberous roots or tubercles of Ipomoea purga Hayne, belonging to family Convolvulaceae.

It is mainly found in Mexican Andes, India, West Indies, and South America.

The plant is large and twinning perennial herb, and it produces thin horizontal slender runners. Adventitious roots (fusiform or napiform roots) are produced from the nodes of the runners. Some of the roots remain thin but few of them swell due to the storage of starch. These roots are collected after the rainy season, that is, in May. As a result of unfavourable environmental conditions they are dried by woodfire in nets. Since the drug is artificially dried it gains a smoky odour. Some slits are also made on the drug to facilitate the escape of the moisture.

Jalap is cylindrical, fusiform or napiform, irregularly oblong about 5 to 10cm long and 2 to 10cm wide. It is hard, resinous, compact, and heavy. The outer surface is dark brown in colour with furrows and wrinkles and internally it is yellowish grey in colour. Odour is smoky and taste is sweet and starchy in the beginning and later it is acrid.

Cork is the outermost layer consisting of tabular polygonal cells which are brown in colour. Just below the cork it has the secondary phloem. The secondary phloem is formed by the circular cambium and is about 2mm wide. Inside the cambium it has the secondary xylem. The secondary xylem has vessels, which are either in small groups or scattered. Latex cells are present in the phloem tissues arranged longitudinally and form a dark and resinous point scattered in the drug. The parenchymatous cells contain starch which are simple, rounded, or in groups of two to four. Small prism types of calcium oxalate crystals are present in the parenchyma and very few sclerenchymatous cells are seen in the phelloderm region.

Jalap can stimulate the intestinal secretion, it act as laxative in small doses and purgative in large doses, and it is also used as hydragogue cathartic.

Mirchi (Hindi), Krishnabija (Sanskrit).

Kaladana consists of the dried ripe seeds of Ipomoea hederacea L., belonging to Family Convolvulaceae.

It grows throughout India both cultivated and apparently wild, up to 2,000 metres in the Himalayas.

The seeds are 5–6mm long, 3.7mm wide, triangular, brownish black in colour. Each seed has two flat faces joining at an angle of 60° to 80°. At the base of joint there is a cordate hilum. Testa is dull black, hard, smooth, and glabrous. Taste is first sweetish then acrid.

Drug contains resin (about 15%), mucilage, fixed oil, and saponin. Hydrolysis of the resin affords hydroxypalmitic acid and sugar. Lysergol, hederaceterpenol, hederaceteriol, hederaterpenoside, β-sitosterol glucopyranoside, and chanoclavine are also present in Kaladana.

Kaladana is used as purgative and substituted for Jalap.

Filix Mass, Rhizoma Filicis Maris.

Male fern consists of the dried rhizomes and its surrounding frond bases of Dryopteris filix-mas (Linn.) Schoot, belonging to family Polypodiaceae.

D. filix-mas is a fern that grows abundantly in Europe especially in England and Germany. In India it grows in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim at the altitude of 5,000–10,000 feet in the Himalayas.

The dried male fern rhizomes are ovoid or cylindrical pieces, about 7–25cm long and 3–4cm thick. The outer surface is mostly covered by fronds which are directed towards the apex. Each frond base is about 45cm long and is thickly covered with numerous brownish seals called as ramenta. The rhizomes break with a short fracture showing green surface. The rhizomes are brownish black in colour with little odour but sweet, bitter and extremely nauseating taste. The drug should be stored in dry places protected from light.

The transverse section of male fern rhizome with frond bases shows the presence of ground tissue consisting polygonal parenchyma along with abundant starch grains. The hypodermis consists of two to three rows of brownish nonlignified sclerenchymatous fibres. Meristemes possesses large tracheids. The ramenta are made up of twin-cell marginal projections.

Male fern rhizomes contain about 5% of yellow resinous substances responsible for its anthelmintic activity. The major constituents of oleoresin are phloroglucinol derivatives of mono-to tetracyclic compounds. The monocyclic derivatives are butyryl phloroglucinol, aspidinol and acylfilicinic acids. These compounds may condense with each other to produce bicyclic compounds such as albaspidin and flavaspidic acid or tricyclic compounds like filicic acid.

Male fern extract and the resin are used as a potent taenicide. It kills the worm and expels it out. Considerable care has to be undertaken during its use. Large doses acts as irritant poison. Its absorption from gastrointestinal tract may cause blindness.

Gum-resin Myrrh; Gum Myrrh; Arabian or Somali Myrrh; Myrrha.

Myrrh is an oleo gum-resin obtained from the stem of Commiphora molmol Eng. or C. abyssinica or other species of Commiphora, belonging to family Burscraceae.

It grows in Arabian pennisula, Ethiopia, Nubia, and Somaliland.

Myrrh plants are small trees up to 10 meters in height. They have the phloem parenchyma and closely associated ducts containing a yellowish granular liquid. The tissues between these ducts often collapse, thereby producing large cavities similarly filled, that is, schizogenous ducts become lysigenous cavities. The gum-resin exudes spontaneously or by incising the bark. The yellowish-white, viscous fluid is solidified readily to produce reddish-brown masses which are collected by the natives.

Myrrh occurs as irregular masses or tears weighing up to 250g. The outer surface is powdery and reddish-brown in colour. The drug breaks and is powdered readily. Fractured surface is rich brown and oily. Odour is aromatic and taste is aromatic, bitter, and acrid.

Fig. 18.13 Commiphora molmol

Myrrh contains resin (25–40%), gum (57–61%), and volatile oil (7–17%). Large portion of the resin is ether-soluble containing α-, β-, and γ-commiphoric acids, resenes, the esters of another resin acid and two phenolic compounds. The volatile oil is a mixture of cuminic aldehyde, eugenol, cresol, pinene, limonene, dipentene, and two sesquiterpenes. The disagreeable odour of the oil is due to mainly the disulphide. The gum contains proteins (18%) and carbohydrate (64%) which is a mixture of galactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, and an oxidase enzyme.

Myrrh is used as carminative and in incense and perfumes. It has local stimulant and antiseptic properties and is utilized in tooth powder and as mouth wash. Topically it is astringent to mucous membranes. It is used in a tincture, paint, gargle and rinse due to its disinfecting, deodourizing, and in inflammatory conditions of the mouth and throat. Alcoholic extracts are used as fixatives in the perfumery industry.

Four different varieties of ’ bdellium are present. Of these, perfumed or scented bdellium or bissabol is obtained from C. erythaea var. glabrescens. It resembles soft myrrh in appearance but more aromatic odour and does not give a violet colour.

It has been marketed as Guggulipid by CDRI, Lucknow, India. In ayurveda, it is sold as Yograj guggulu (Baidyanath) for antiinflammatory and antihyperlipidemic activity, and it is also a constituent of Madhumehari (Baidyanath).

Podophyllum, American Mandrake, May-apple root.

Podophyllum peltatum is indigenous to Eastern part of the United States and Canada. It grows wildly in Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Indiana, and Tennessee.

Podophyllum is a perennial herb which grows wildly in moist and shady places. Most of the drug is collected from the wild plant in autumn. However, the cultivation of podophyllum has been found to be profitable in the area of its occurrence. The rhizomes are dug up, washed with water to remove soil, and cut into smaller pieces. The adventitious roots present on the rhizomes are removed. The drug is dried in the sun.

Podophyllum rhizomes come in the form of subcylindrical pieces of 5–20cm length and 5–6mm thickness at the internode and about 15mm at the node. The pieces show occasional branching. It shows the scars of aerial stems and adventitious roots. The outer surface is smooth or wrinkled and dark reddish brown. It shows slight but characteristic odour and bitter, acrid taste. The rhizome breaks with a short, horny fracture. The transversely cut surface show white starchy circles with radially elongated vascular bundles.

A transverse section of the podophyllum rhizome shows darker epidermis and one-or two-layered cork made up of dead cells. The outer cortical zone is made up of thin-walled parenchyma and collenchymatous tissues, whereas the inner cortex consists of a ring of smaller vascular bundles. Central pith is parenchymatous with narrow stone cells. Certain parenchymatous cells of the nodal region shows cluster crystals of calcium oxalate and most of the cells show the presence of starch grains.

Podophyllum rhizomes contain 2–8% resinous material termed as podophyllin. The major constituents of podophyllum resin are the lignan derivatives which are characterized as podophyllotoxin, α- and β-peltatin. The lignans are found in the form of glycosides and also as their free aglycones. It also contains desmethyl podophyllotoxin, desoxypodophyllotoxin, podophyllotoxone, a flavonoid quercetin and starch.

Podophyllum resin or podophyllin shows cytotoxic activity. It is used for the treatment of venereal and other warts. Podophyllotoxin is semisynthetically converted to a potent anticancer agent etoposide which is mainly used for the treatment of lung and testicular cancer. Podophyllum resin is a strong gastrointestinal irritant. It acts as a drastic purgative in moderate doses but it has been mostly replaced by other purgative drugs.

Rhizoma Podophylli Indici, Indian podophyllum.

Indian podophyllum consists of the dried pieces of rhizomes and roots of Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, belonging to family Berberidaceae.

The plant grows abundantly in the higher slopes of the Himalayas in India and Pakistan. It is also found in Afghanistan and Tibet.

Indian podophyllum rhizomes are subcylindrical, flattened pieces with a very short internode as compared to American podophyllum. The pieces are about 2–4cm long and 1–2cm in diameter, it shows the scars due to cutting of branches and roots. Rhizomes are brownish coloured with characteristic odour and acrid, bitter taste. It breaks with horny fracture but very hard. The transversely cut surface shows a ring of vascular bundle and central pith.

Fig. 18.14 Podophyllum hexandrum

A transverse section of the Indian podophyllum rhizome shows the thin-walled, tubular cork. Cortex is made up of cellular parenchyma containing large number of starch grains and cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring with phloem on the outer side and a bit irregular xylem at the inner side. In certain regions fibrovascular bundles are found entering the aerial stem. The central pith shows the crystals of calcium oxalate. The major distinguishing features in P. hexandrum and P. peltatum are the size of the starch grain and the crystals of calcium oxalate.

The most of the chemical constituents of Indian podophyllum are similar to that of P. peltatum. Podophyllum resin present to the extent of 6–12% which contains about 40% podophyllotoxin.

P. hexandrum closely resembles P. peltatum in its pharmacological activity. It is largely used for the preparation of podophyllum resin.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Podowart (Shalaks Pharmaceuticals).

Siam Benzoin is a balsamic resin derived from stem of Styrax tonkinensis Craib., belonging to family Styraceae.

The trees are present in North Laos, North Vietnam, Annam, and Thailand.

Siam Benzoin occurs as tears or in blocks of variable sizes and reddish brown externally, but milky-white or opaque internally. Matrix is glassy, reddish-brown, resinous, brittle but softening on chewing and become plastic-like on chewing. It has vanilla-like odour and a balsamic taste.

The principal constituent of Siam Benzoin is coniferyl benzoate (60–80%) (3-methoxy-4-hydroxycinnamyl alcohol). Other constituents are free benzoic acid (10%), triterpene siaresinolic acid (6%), vanillin, and benzyl cinnamate.

Siam Benzoin acts as antiseptic, culinary and expectorant; it is used to prepare benzoinated lard, cosmetics, fixatives, and in perfumery. It is superior to the Sumatra Benzoin with respect to antioxidative effect in lard and other fats.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Friar’s Balsam.

Gum Benjamin; Benzoinum; Benzoin; Luban (Hindi).

Sumatra Benzoin is obtained from the incised stem of Styrax benzoin Dryander and Styrax parallelo-neurus Perkins., belonging to family Styraceae. It contains about 25% of total balsamic acids, calculated as cinnamic acid.

The trees are found in Sumatra, Malacca, Malaya, Java, and Borneo.

The plants are medium-sized trees. Sumatra Benzoin is a pathological resin which is formed by making incision and by attack of fungi. In Sumatra the seeds are sown in rice fields. The rice plants provide protection to benzoin plants during first year. After harvesting of the rice crop the trees are allowed to grow. When they are 7 years old, three triangular wounds are made in a vertical row. Tapping consists of making in each trunk three lines of incisions which are gradually lengthened. The first triangular wounds are made in a vertical row about 40cm apart, the bark between the wounds being then scraped smooth. The first secretion is very sticky and is rejected. After making further cuts, each about 4cm above the preceding ones, a harder secretion is obtained. Further incisions are made at three-monthly intervals, and the secretion becomes crystalline. About 6 weeks after each fresh tapping the product is scraped off, the outer layer (finest quality) being kept separate from the next layer (intermediate quality). About 2 weeks later the strip is scraped again, giving a lower quality darker in colour and containing fragments of bark. Fresh incisions are then made, and the above process is repeated. Second exudation is milky white and is used for medicinal purpose. The stem is incised four times during one year. AH types of exudations are sent to industry for further processing. A single tree yields about 10kg of resin per year and is completely exhausted by the 19th year of its life.

Fig. 18.15 Styrax benzoin

Sumatra Benzoin consists of free balsamic acid (cinnamic and benzoic acids) (25%) and their esters. The amount of cinnamic acid is usually double that of benzoic acid. It also contains triterpenic acids like siaresinolic acid (19-hydroxyoleanolic acid) and sumaresinolic acid (6-hydroxy-oleanolic acid); traces of vanillin, phenylpropyl cinnamate, cinnamyl cinnamate, and phenylethylene.

Sumatra Benzoin possesses expectorant, antiseptic, carminative, stimulant, and diuretic properties. It is used in cosmetic lotions, perfumery and to prepare Compound Benzoin. It forms an ingredient of inhalations in the treatment of catarrh of upper respiratory tract in the form of Compound Benzoin Tincture. Benzoin is used as an external antiseptic and protective, and is one of the main ingredients of Friar’s Balsam. It is also used to fix the odour of incenses, skin-soaps, perfumes and other cosmetics and for fixing the taste of certain pharmaceutical preparations. Benzoin retards rancification of fats and is used for this purpose in the official benzoinated lard, also used in food, drinks and in incense.

Palembang benzoin, an interior variety produced in Sumatra is collected from isolated trees from which the resin has not been stripped for some time. It is very light in weight and breaking with an irregular porous fracture. It consists of reddish-brown resin, with only a few very small tears embedded in it. Palembang benzoin is used as a source of natural benzoic acid.

Styrax; Sweet oriental gum; Prepared Storax; Liquid Storax; Styrax preparatus.

Storax is a balsam obtained from the trunk of Liquidambar orientalis Miller, commercially known as Levant Storax, or of Liquidambar styraciflua Linn, known as American Storax, belonging to family Hamamelidaceae.

Levant Storax is a native to Asia Minor and Southwest of Turkey. American Storax is produced chiefly in Honduras; found along the Atlantic coast from Connecticut to Central America.

Levant Storax and American Storax are medium-sized trees attaining the height of 15 m to 40 m, respectively. Levant Storax is a pathological resin. In the early summer the bark of three to four years old tree is injured by bruising. Cambium is activated to produce new wood with balsam secreting ducts. The bark is gradually saturated with balsam which is peeled off. The pieces of bark are pressed to get the product. The bark is boiled in hot water and repressed. The crude balsam is poured into casks or cans and exported.

Storax is rich in two resin alcohol (50%): α-storesin and β-storesin and balsamic acids (30–47%). The alcohols occur partly free and partly as esters of cinnamic acid (10–20%). Storax also contains cinnamyl cinnamate or styracin (5–10%), phenyl-propyl cinnamate (10%); ethyl cinnamate, benzyl cinnamate, free cinnamic acid (5–15%), styrene, traces of vanillin, and volatile oil (0.5–1%). Steam distillation of Storax yields a pale yellow or dark brown oil (0.5–1.0%) known as oil of Storax. It has a pleasant but peculiar odour.

Storax is used as a stimulant, expectorant, parasiticide, topical protectant, and an antiseptic. Pharmaceutical preparations like Compound Benzoin Tincture, Friars’ Balsam, and Benzoin Inhalation are also prepared from the Storax.

Saffron Indian; haldi (Hindi); Curcuma; Rhizoma curcumae.

Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma longa Linn. (syn. C. domestica Valeton)., belonging to family Zingiberaceae.

The plant is a native to southern Asia and is cultivated extensively in temperate regions. It is grown on a larger scale in India, China, East Indies, Pakistan, and Malaya.

Turmeric plant is a perennial herb, 60–90cm high with a short stem and tufted leaves; the rhizomes, which are short and thick, constitute the turmeric of commerce. The crop requires a hot and moist climate, a liberal water supply and a well-drained soil. It thrives on any soil-loamy or alluvial, but the soil should be loose and friable. The field should be well prepared by ploughing and turning over to a depth of about 30cm and liberally manured with farmyard and green manures. Sets or fingers of the previous crop with one or two buds are planted 7cm deep at distance of 30–37cm from April to August. The crop is ready for harvesting in about 9–10 months when the lower leaves turn yellow. The rhizomes are carefully dug up with hard picks, washed, and dried.

The transverse section of the rhizome is characterized by the presence of mostly thin-walled rounded parenchyma cells, scattered vascular bundles, definite endodermis, few layers of cork developed under the epidermis, and scattered oleoresin cells with brownish contents. The epidermis is consisted of thick-walled cells, cubical in shape, of various dimensions. The cork cambium is developed from the sub-epidermal layers and even after the development of the cork, the epidermis is retained. Cork is generally composed of four to six layers of thin-walled brick-shaped parenchymatous cells. The parenchyma of the pith and cortex contains grains altered to a paste, in which sometimes long lens shaped unaltered starch grains of 4–15μm diameter are found. Oil cells have suberised walls and contain either orange-yellow globules of a volatile oil or amorphous resinous masses. Cortical vascular bundles are scattered and are of a collateral type. The vascular bundles in the pith region are mostly scattered and they form discontinuous ring just under the endodermis. The vessels have mainly spiral thickenings and only a few have reticulate and annular structure.

Fig. 18.18 T.S. (schematic) of turmeric rhizome

Fig. 18.19 Transverse section of turmeric rhizome

Turmeric contains yellow colouring matter called as curcuminoids (5%) and essential oil (6%). The chief constituent of the colouring matter is curcumin I (60%) in addition with small quantities of curcumin III, curcumin II and dihydrocurcumin. The volatile oil contains mono-and sesquiterpenes like zingiberene (25%), α-phellandrene, sabinene, turmerone, arturmerone, borneol, and cineole. Choleretic action of the essential oil is attributed to β-tolylmethyl carbinol.

Turmeric is used as aromatic, antiinflammatory, stomachic, uretic, anodyne for billiary calculus, stimulant, tonic, carminative, blood purifier, antiperiodic, alterative, spice, colouring agent for ointments and a common household remedy for cold and cough. Externally, it is used in the form of a cream to improve complexion. Dye-stuff acts as a cholagogue causing the contraction of the gall bladder. It is also used in menstrual pains. Curcumin has choleretic and cholagogue action and is used in liver diseases. Curcumin is a nontoxic authorized colour, heat resistant and sensitive to changes in pH. Curcuminoids have antiphlogistic activity which is due to inhibition of leukotriene biosynthesis. ar-Turmerone has antisnake venom activity and blocks the haemorrhagic effect of venom.

The genuine drug is adulterated with the rhizomes of Acorus calamus.

It is one of the ingredients of the preparations known as J.P. Nikhar oil, J.P. Kasantak (Jamuna Pharma), Diabecon, Purian (Himalaya Drug Company), and Respinova (Lupin Herbal Laboratory).