Reptiles

Geraldine Diethelm, VetMed

TABLE 11

Antimicrobial agents used in reptiles.^a^,^b

^a Because reptiles are ectothermic, pharmacokinetics of drugs are influenced by ambient temperature. Antimicrobial therapy should be conducted at the upper end of the patient’s preferred optimum temperature zone.

^b See Appendix 105 for antimicrobial combination therapies, some of which are commonly used in reptiles.

TABLE 12

Antiviral agents used in reptiles.

TABLE 13

Antifungal agents used in reptiles.

TABLE 14

Antiparasitic agents used in reptiles.

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Vapona No-Pest Strip (Shell Chemical)	6 mm strip/10 ft³ ×3–5 days; 2.5 cm² in perforated plastic film container ×2–5 days^82,84	Most species/mites; use with caution; prevent contact with animals (e.g., place strip above cage); avoid in cases of renal or hepatic dysfunction; remove water container; some recommend not to use continuously (expose 2–3 hr, 2–3×/wk for 3–4 wk)¹³⁷; because of its toxicity and availability of safer alternatives, use is discouraged
Water	Bath ×30 min¹⁶⁵	Snakes, lizards/mites; use lukewarm water; safe, but not very effective; does not kill mites on head

TABLE 15

Chemical restraint/anesthetic/analgesic agents used in reptiles.

^a Hernandez-Divers S. Personal communication. 2004.

TABLE 16

Hormones and steroids used in reptiles.

TABLE 17

Nutritional/mineral/fluid support used in reptiles.^a

^a Also see Appendix 9.

TABLE 18

Miscellaneous agents used in reptiles.

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Sucralfate (Carafate, Hoechst & Marion Roussel)	500–1000 mg/kg PO q6–8h⁸²	Oral, esophageal, gastric, and duodenal ulcers
Sulfinpyrazone (Anturane, Novartis)	Not established¹⁶³	Gout; increases uric acid excretion
Tamoxifen 60-day time release pellets (Innovative Research of America)	Pellets containing 5 mg tamoxifen implants ICe⁵⁹	Leopard geckos/inhibition of follicular development for 60 days if implanted before vitellogenesis
Tegaderm (3M Health Care)	Topical⁴¹	Wound dressing

APPENDIX 6

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of reptiles.

^a Heterophils and neutrophils.

^b Includes Burmese (Python molurus), ball (P. regius), and reticulated (P. reticulatis) pythons.

^c Absolute values (10³/μl).

^d 191 Elevated in gravid females; vitamin D₃ higher in female green iguanas.

^e In contrast to the data reported on the previous page in iguanas (housed indoors with 14 hr of artificial broad-spectrum lighting), these data were obtained from iguanas housed outdoors with natural sunlight much of the year.

^f Includes 22 (8–42) azurophils.

^g Calculated from data.

^h Greatly differing percentages have also been reported: heterophils, 33 ±15; lymphocytes, 23 ±7; monocytes, 11 ±7; azurophilic monocytes, 2 ±2; eosinophils, 1 ±0.5; and basophils, 30 ±11.²

APPENDIX 7

Environmental, dietary, and reproductive characteristics of reptiles.^{7,58,67,76,89,127,182,240}

C, Carnivorous; F, frugivorous; H, herbivorous; I, insectivorous; O, molluscavorous; Om, omnivorous; Op, ophiophagous; P, piscivorous; V, viviparous; Ov, oviparous.

^a Temperatures shown are ideal ambient daytime temperature gradients. These should be allowed to fall by approximately 5° C (9° F) during the night. “Hot-spot” temperatures should generally be 5° C (9° F) greater than the highest temperature shown.

^b Preferred daytime temperature range for other commonly housed captive snakes are: rosy boa (Lichanura trivirgata), 27.0° C–29.5° C (81° F–85° F); green tree python (Morelia viridis), 24° C–28° C (75° F–82° F); carpet python (Morelia spilota), 27.0° C–29.5° C (81° F–85° F); corn snake (Elaphe guttata), 25° C–30° C (77° F–86° F); yellow rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta), 25° C–29° C (77° F–84° F); gopher/bullsnake (Pituophis melanoleucus): 25° C–29° C (77° F–84° F).

^c Preferred daytime temperature range for other commonly housed captive lizards are: day gecko (Pheluma sp.), 29.5° C (85° F); chameleons (montane) (Chamaeleo spp.), 21° C–27° C (70° F–81° F); chameleons (lowland) (Chamaeleo spp.), 27° C–29° C (81° F–84° F); bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), 26.7° C–29.4° C (80° F–85° F); blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua sp.), 27.0° C–29.5° C (81° F–85° F); monitor lizards (Varanus spp.), 29° C–31° C (84° F–88° F); tegus (Tupinambis spp.), 27° C–30° C (81° F–86° F).

^d Uppercase letters denote principal dietary requirements. Lowercase denotes secondary preference.

^e Temperature-dependent.

APPENDIX 8

Urinalysis values of chelonians.^85,146

Measurement	Normal Values	Abnormal Values
Specific gravity	1.003–1.014 (mean, 1.008)	Up to 1.034 (mean, 1.013)
pH	6.4–6.6 (alkaline)	Acidic^a
Color	Colorless to pale yellow	Yellow with white
Protein	Mild proteinuria	Increased proteinuria
Glucose	Glucosuria up to 30 mg/dl	Glucosuria can be higher than 50 mg/dl with anorexia
Renal casts	None	Various types present
Crystals	Amorphous urates/ammonium biurates	Many other crystals found in renal failure; uric acid crystals in gout; bilirubin and tyrosine crystals in liver disease

^aMay be associated with anorexia or an improper diet.

APPENDIX 9

Selected products and guidelines used in force-feeding anorectic or debilitated reptiles.^a^,^b

Agent	Guidelines	Species/Comments
Timothy hay–based powder (Critical Care, Oxbow Pet Products)	Blend 1 part powder with 1.5 parts electrolyte solution or water; 20 ml/kg PO q48h (lizards) to q84h (chelonians)^29,143,238	Herbivorous reptiles (e.g., iguanas, tortoises)

^aGeneral guidelines for force-feeding: generally provide nutrition after rehydration of patient; needs may vary with specific disease (e.g., low protein with renal disease); force-feeding volumes are frequently started at a low/modest level and gradually brought up to the desired level (for patients with severe disease/cachexia, transition should be very gradual); concurrent to force-feeding and hydrating a patient, highly palatable food items should be provided for voluntary food intake.

^bDietary fiber supplements (alfalfa pellets or powder; barley powder; purified cellulose [Solka Floc, James River]) should be an integral part of enteral therapy for herbivorous reptiles.

APPENDIX 10

Guidelines for tracheal/pulmonary and colonic lavage in reptiles.^98,130,210

APPENDIX 11

Venipuncture sites commonly used in reptiles.^107,215

APPENDIX 12 Treatment of dystocia in reptiles.^a^{3,8,35,82,120,143,176,208}

ETIOLOGY

• Poor environmental conditions (improper ambient temperature, lack of thermal gradient, lack of suitable nesting area, etc.)

• Dietary imbalances (e.g., calcium deficiency), malnutrition

• Endocrine imbalances

• Uterine inertia

• Renal disease

• Infections (e.g., uterus)

• Anatomic anomalies of the reproductive tract or eggs

• Other (substrate ingestion; overfeeding near oviposition; inadequate exercise)

DIAGNOSIS

• History and clinical signs

• Physical examination (gentle palpation)

• CBC, serum biochemical analysis

• Radiography (chelonian eggs have a calcified outer shell and appear radiographically similar to avian eggs; lizards and snakes generally have soft-shelled eggs with soft tissue density on radiographs)

• Ultrasound

TREATMENT

• Provide proper environmental conditions (adjust ambient temperature to the preferred body temperature; suitable nesting site; minimal stress)

• Gentle handling

• Warm water soaks ×30-60 min q24h

• Rehydration

• Dextrose (SC, IV, ICe) may be of value in some cases

• Calcium (see Table 17) (low Ca not generally a problem in snakes)

^ Ca lactate/Ca glycerophosphate (Calphosan, Glenwood) (5 mg each/ml), 5 mg/kg SC, IM

^ Ca gluconate (23%), 100-200 mg/kg SC, IM

• Oxytocin (see Table 16)^b

^ Generally administer 1 hr after Ca administration

^ 1-10 IU/kg IM, ICe in lizards and snakes (results are variable); 2-20 IU/kg IM, ICe for most chelonians; may be repeated in 1 hr

• Arginine vasotocin (Sigma Chemical) (alternative to oxytocin) (See Table 16)

^ 0.01-1.0 mg/kg IV (preferred), ICe

^ Appears to be more effective than oxytocin in many reptiles, but it is not commercially available for use in animals

• Lubricate cloaca with water-soluble gel

• Manual massage may be useful in some situations

• Salpingostomy may be required

a Although most reptiles are oviparous, some, including garter snakes, water snakes, boas (not pythons), vipers, Jackson’s chameleons, horned toads, and Solomon Island prehensile-tailed skinks are viviparous.

b Use only if there is no evidence of obstructive dystocia or broken eggs.

APPENDIX 13 Treatment of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in iguanas.^{3,5,8–10,30–32,161,238}

ETIOLOGY

• Improper Ca:P ratio; lack of dietary Ca

• Lack of vitamin D₃

• Lack of UVB light in the 290-320 nm (285-315 nm)⁷¹ spectrum

• Other: low ambient temperature; protein deficiency; disease of kidney, small intestines, parathyroid, etc.

CLINICAL SIGNS

• Lethargy, reluctance to move

• Poor appetite or anorexia

• Weight loss or poor weight gain

• Softening of the mandible; shortened/rounded mandible and maxilla; symmetrical swelling of the mandible (fibrous osteodystrophy)

• Fibrous osteodystrophy of the long bones of the legs

• Difficulty in lifting body off ground when walking

• Pathologic fractures

• Ataxia, paresis, or paralysis of the rear legs from collapsed vertebrae or vertebral luxation

• Osteoporosis

• Hypocalcemic muscle fasciculations and seizures

DIAGNOSIS

• Dietary and environmental history

• Clinical signs

• Physical examination

• Radiography

• Serum Ca:P ratio; but is usually within normal limits

TREATMENT

• Provide ambient temperature (with temperature gradient) of 29.5° C–32.0° C (85° F–90° F) during the day and 24.0° C–26.5° C (75° F–80° F) at night

^ Focal hot spot should approach ≥37.5° C (100° F)

• Improve diet (iguanas are herbivores/folivores, and require high-Ca foods)

• Force-feeding (after rehydration) (see Appendix 9)

^ 20 ml/kg q1-2d

^ Vegetable baby foods; Critical Care (Oxbow Pet Products); blended iguana or rabbit pellets; avian hand-feeding formulas; short-term use of Emeraid Critical Care (Lafeber)

^ Alternatively, force-feed a formula consisting of 1 can strawberry or vanilla human liquid-meal replacement drink (Ensure or Enrich, Ross), 1 banana, and 1 Centrum vitamin tablet (Lederle) blended

^ In addition, pelleted commercial iguana chow can be soaked in water and gently hand-fed (especially by owners)

• Ca supplementation options (see Table 17)

^ Per os (administered in conjunction with parenteral therapy)

• Ca glubionate (Neo-Calglucon, Sandoz; Calciquid, Breckenridge Pharmaceuticals; Calcionate, Rugby), 10 mg/kg PO q12-24h until patient is gaining weight and consuming adequate Ca (generally 1-3 mo)

• Sprinkled on food (Ca carbonate; Rep-Cal, Rep-Cal Research Labs; Tums, SmithKline Beecham)

^ In cases of hypocalcemia, extreme weakness, or when Ca absorption from the gastrointestinal tract may be poor, parenteral administration of Ca is indicated

• Ca lactate/Ca glycerophosphate (Calphosan, Glenwood) (5 mg each/ml): 10 mg (1 ml)/kg SC, IM, ICe q24h × 1-7 days

• Ca gluconate: 100 mg/kg IM, ICe q8h prn

• Maintain hydration

^ Fluid therapy as needed

^ Soak in warm water (shallow) for 10-20 min q12-24h to encourage drinking and defecation (caution: head may need to be supported; do not leave unattended)

• Vitamin D₃

^ 100-1000 IU/kg (generally 200 IU/kg) IM (repeat in 1 wk)

^ 200 IU/kg PO q7d

^ Best source is UV radiation

• Calcitonin (Miacalcin, Sandoz; Calcimar, Rhôone-Poulenc Rorer) to prevent further transfer of Ca from bone to blood (hormone therapies should always be performed cautiously)

^ 50 IU/kg IM q7d × 2 treatments

^ Ca supplementation should be given before and during calcitonin therapy

^ Serum Ca should be within normal limits before calcitonin therapy; if Ca levels cannot be determined, administer Ca supplements for 7 days before calcitonin

• Other

^ Handle gently

^ Remove climbing branches to prevent injuries

APPENDIX 14

Selected sources of diets and other commercial products for reptiles.^a^,^b

^a Many pet stores sell live and frozen food for reptiles and many of the products listed.

^b Numerous sources of information were used to compile this table, especially references 41 and 201.

APPENDIX 15 Literature cited—reptiles.

1. Report of the AVMA panel on euthanasia. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993;202:243–249. [—-].

2. Alleman, AR, Jacobson, ER, Raskin, RE. Morphologic and cytochemical characteristics of blood cells from the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:51–55.

3. Allen, DG, Pringle, JK, Smith, D. Handbook of Veterinary Drugs. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1993;534–567.

4. Anderson, NL. Diseases of Iguana iguana. Compend Cont Educ Pract Vet. 1992;14:1335–1343.

5. Anderson, NL, Wack, RF. Basic husbandry and medicine of pet reptiles. In: Birchard SJ, Sherding RG, eds. Saunders Manual of Small Animal Practice. ed 2. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2000:1539–1567.

6. Anderson, NL, Wack, RF, Calloway, L. Cardiopulmonary effects and efficacy of propofol as an anesthetic agent in brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1999;9:9–15.

7. Barrie, MT. Chameleon medicine. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999:200–205.

8. Barten, SL. The medical care of iguanas and other common pet lizards. Vet Clin North Am: Small Anim Pract. 1993;23:1213–1249.

9. Barten, SL. Diseases of the green iguana, Iguana iguana. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1996:811–814.

10. Bauck, L, Boyer, TH, Brown, SA, et al. Exotic Animal Formulary. Lakewood, CO: American Animal Hospital Association, 1995;19–36.

11. Beck, K, Loomis, M, Lewbart, G, et al. Preliminary comparison of plasma concentrations of gentamicin injected into the cranial and caudal limb musculature of the eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1995;26:265–268.

12. Bennett RA. Personal communication. 2002.

13. Bennett, RA. A review of anesthesia and chemical restraint in reptiles. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1991;22:282–303.

14. Bennett, RA. Current techniques in reptile anesthesia and surgery. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet/Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1994:36–44.

15. Bennett, RA. Anesthesia. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:241–247.

16. Bennett, RA. Clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic techniques. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:35–40.

17. Bennett, RA. Management of common reptile emergencies. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:67–72.

18. Bennett, RA. Reptile anesthesia. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1998;7:30–40.

19. Bennett, RA, Divers, SJ, Schumacher, J, et al. Anesthesia. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1999;9:20–27.

20. Bennett, RA, Schumacher, J, Hedjazi-Haring, K, et al. Cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of propofol administered intraosseously to green iguanas. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998;212:93–98.

21. Benson, KG, Tell, LA, Young, LA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur sodium after intramuscular or subcutaneous administration in green iguana (Iguana iguana). Am J Vet Res. 2003;64:1278–1282.

22. Bienzle, D, Boyd, CJ. Sedative effects of ketamine and midazolam in snapping turtles. J Zoo Anim Med. 1992;23:201–204.

23. Bishop YM, ed. The Veterinary Formulary. ed 3. London: British Veterinary Association and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society; 1996:63–65.

24. Bodri, MS, Hruba, SJ. Safety of milbemycin (A₃-A₄ oxime) in chelonians. Proc Joint Meeting Am Assoc Zoo Vet/Am Assoc Wildl Vet. 1992:156–157.

25. Bodri, MS, Rambo, TM, Wagner, RA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of metronidazole administered as a single oral bolus to corn snakes, Elaphe guttata. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2001:121–122.

26. Boyer, DM. IME—snake mite (Ophionyssus natricis) eradication utilizing permectrin spray. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1995;5:4–5.

27. Boyer, TH. Clinical anesthesia of reptiles. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1992;2:10–13.

28. Boyer, TH. Common problems of box turtles (Terrapene spp) in captivity. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1992;2:9–14.

29. Boyer, TH. Emergency care of reptiles. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1994;3:210–216.

30. Boyer, TH. Common problems and treatment of green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Bull Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1995;5:8–11.

31. Boyer, TH. Metabolic bone disease. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:385–392.

32. Boyer, TH. Diseases of the green iguana. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1997:718–722.

33. Boyer, TH. Emergency care of reptiles. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 1998;1:191–206.

34. Boyer, TH. Essentials of Reptiles: A Guide for Practitioners. AAHA Press, Lakewood, CO, 1998.

35. Brown, CW, Martin, RA. Dystocia in snakes. Compend Cont Educ Pract Vet. 1990;12:86–92.

36. Burns, RB, McMahan, W. Euthanasia methods for ectothermic vertebrates. In: Bonagura JD, ed. Kirk’s Current Veterinary Therapy XII: Small Animal Practice. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1995:1379–1381.

37. Burridge, MJ, Simmons, L-A. Control and eradication of exotic tick infestations on reptiles. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2001:21–23.

38. Bush, M, Smeller, JM, Charache, PN, et al. Preliminary study of antibiotics in snakes. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1976:50–54.

39. Bush, M, Smeller, JM, Charache, P, et al. Biological half-life of gentamicin in gopher snakes. Am J Vet Res. 1978;39:171–173.

40. Caligiuri, R, Kollias, GV, Jacobson, E, et al. The effects of ambient temperature on amikacin pharmacokinetics in gopher tortoises. J Vet Pharmacol Therapeut. 1990;13:287–291.

41. Carpenter JW. Personal communication. 2004.

42. Carpenter, JW. Radiographic imaging of reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:873–875.

43. Casares, M, Enders, F. Enrofloxacin side effects in a Galapagos tortoise (Geochelone elephantopus nigra). Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1996:446–448.

44. Centini, R, Klaphake, E. Hematologic values and cytology in a population of captive jungle carpet pythons, Morelia spilota cheqnei.. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2002:107–111.

45. Chiodini, RJ, Sundberg, JP. Blood chemical values of the common boa constrictor (Constrictor constrictor). Am J Vet Res. 1982;43:1701–1702.

46. Chittick, EJ, Stamper, MA, Beasley, JF, et al. Medetomidine, ketamine, and sevoflurane for anesthesia of injured loggerhead sea turtles: 13 cases (1996-2000). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002;221:1019–1025.

47. Clark, CH, Rogers, ED, Milton, JT. Plasma concentrations of chloramphenicol in snakes. Am J Vet Res. 1985;46:2654–2657.

48. Clyde, VC, Cardeilhac, P, Jacobson, E. Chemical restraint of American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) with atracurium or tiletamine-zolazepam. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1994;25:525–530.

49. Coke, RL, Tristan, TE. Cryptosporidium infection in a colony of leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:157–163.

50. Coke, RL, Hunter, RP, Isaza, R, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tissue concentrations of azithromycin in ball pythons (Python regius). Am J Vet Res. 2003;64:225–228.

51. Coke, RL, Isaza, R, Koch, DE, et al. Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin in ball pythons (Python regius). Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2004:116.

52. Cooper, JE. Anaesthesia of exotic animals. Anim Technol. 1984;35:13–20.

53. Cooper, JE. Physiology (reptiles). In: Fowler ME, ed. Zoo & Wildlife Medicine. ed 2. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1986:132–135.

54. Cranfield, MR, Graczyk, TK. An update on ophidian cryptosporidiosis. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1995:225–230.

55. Cranfield, MR, Graczyk, TK. Cryptosporidiosis. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:359–363.

56. Cranfield, M, Graczyk, T, Lodwick, L. Adenovirus in the bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps. Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:131–132.

57. Crawshaw, GJ. Comparison of plasma biochemical values in blood and blood-lymph mixtures from red-eared sliders, Trachemys scripta elegans. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1996;6:7–9.

58. Cunningham, AA, Gili, C. Management in captivity. In: Beynon PH, Lawton MPC, Cooper JE, eds. Manual of Reptiles. Ames, IA: Iowa State University; 1994:14–31.

59. DeNardo, DF, Helminski, G. Birth control in lizards? Therapeutic inhibition of reproduction. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2000:65–66.

60. Dennis, PM. Plasma concentration of ionized calcium in healthy iguanas. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001;219:326–328.

61. Dennis, PM, Heard, DJ. Cardiopulmonary effects of a medetomidine-ketamine combination administered intravenously in gopher tortoises. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002;220:1516–1519.

62. Divers, SJ. Constipation in snakes with particular reference to surgical correction in a Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus). Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:67–69.

63. Divers, SJ. Medical and surgical treatment of pre-ovulatory ova stasis and post-ovulatory egg stasis in oviparous lizards. Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:119–123.

64. Divers, SJ. The use of propofol in reptile anesthesia. Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:57–59.

65. Divers, SJ. Clinician’s approach to renal disease in lizards. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1997:5–11.

66. Divers, SJ. Empirical doses of antimicrobial drugs commonly used in reptiles. Exotic DVM. 1998;1:23. [(premier issue)].

67. Divers, SJ. Administering fluid therapy to reptiles. Exotic DVM. 1999;1(2):5–10.

68. Divers, SJ. Anesthetics in reptiles. Exotic DVM. 1999;1(3):7–8.

69. Divers, SJ. Clinical evaluation of reptiles. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 1999;2:291–331.

70. Divers, SJ, Redmayne, G, Aves, EK. Haematological and biochemical values of 10 green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Vet Rec. 1996;138:203–205.

71. Donoghue, S. Metabolic bone disease in green iguanas and other reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:764–765.

72. Donoghue, S. Nutritional problems of reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:762–764.

73. Donoghue, S, McKeown, S. Nutrition of captive reptiles. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 1999;2:69–91.

74. Drew, ML. Hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia in indigo snakes (Drymarchon corais) and serum biochemical reference values. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1994;25:48–52.

75. Driggers, T. Respiratory diseases, diagnostics, and therapy in snakes. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 2000;3:519–530.

76. Dundee, HA, Rossman, DA. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University, 1989;270–272.

77. Farnsworth, RJ, Brannian, RE, Fletcher, KC, et al. A vitamin E-selenium responsive condition in a green iguana. J Zoo Anim Med. 1986;17:42–45.

78. Faulkner, JE, Archambault, A. Anesthesia and surgery in the green iguana. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1993;2:103–108.

79. Flach, EJ, Riley, J, Mutlow, AG, et al. Pentastomiasis in Bosc’s monitor lizards (Varanus exanthemicus) caused by an undescribed Sambonia species. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2000;31:91–95.

80. Fleming, GJ. Capture and chemical immobilization of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in South Africa. Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:63–66.

81. Fleming, GJ. Crocodilian anesthesia. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 2001;4:119–145.

82. Frye, FL. Reptile Clinician’s Handbook. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 1994.

83. Gamble, KC, Alvarado, TP, Bennett, CL. Itraconazole plasma and tissue concentrations in the spiny lizard (Sceloporus sp.) following once-daily dosing. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1997;28:89–93.

84. Gauvin, J. Drug therapy in reptiles. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1993;2:48–59.

85. Gibbons, PM, Horton, SJ, Brandl, SR. Urinalysis in box turtles, Terrapene spp. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2000:161–168.

86. Gillespie, D. Reptiles. In: Birchard SJ, Sherding RG, eds. Saunders Manual of Small Animal Practice. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1994:1390–1411.

87. Gottdenker, NL, Jacobson, ER. Effect of venipuncture sites on hematologic and clinical biochemical values in desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii). Am J Vet Res. 1995;56:19–21.

88. Hackenbroich, C, Failing, K, Axt-Findt, U, et al. Alphaxalone-alphadolone-anaesthesia in Trachemys scripta elegans and its influence on respiration, circulation and metabolism. Proc 2nd Conf Euro Assoc Zoo Wildl Vet. 1998:431–436.

89. Harless, M, Morlock, H. Turtles—Perspective and Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979;356–366.

90. Harms, CA, Lewbart, GA, Beasley, J. Medical management of mixed nocardial and unidentified fungal osteomyelitis in a Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii. J Herp Med Surg. 2001;12:21–26.

91. Harkewicz, KA. Dermatology of reptiles: a clinical approach to diagnosis and treatment. Vet Clin North Am: Exot Anim Pract. 2001;4:411–461.

92. Harkewicz, KA. Dermatologic problems of reptiles. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 2002;11:151–161.

93. Harr, KE, Alleman, AR, Dennis, PM, et al. Morphologic and cytochemical characteristics of blood cells and hematologic and plasma biochemical reference ranges in green iguanas. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001;218:915–921.

94. Hawk, CT, Leary, SL. Formulary for Laboratory Animals. Ames, IA: Iowa State University, 1995.

95. Heard, DJ. Principles and techniques of anesthesia and analgesia for exotic practice. Vet Clin North Am: Small Anim Pract. 1993;23:1301–1327.

96. Heard, DJ. Advanced reptile anesthesia and medicine. Proc Avian Specialty Advanced Prog/Small Mam Rept Prog. 1998:113–119.

97. Heard, DJ. Advances in reptile anesthesia. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:770.

98. Heard, D, Fleming, G, Lock, B, et al. Lizards. In: Meredith A, Redrobe S, eds. BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. ed 4. Gloucester, England: British Small Animal Veterinary Association; 2002:223–240.

99. Heatley, J, Mitchell, M, Williams, J, et al. Fungal periodontal osteomyelitis in a chameleon, Fucifer pardalis. J Herp Med Surg. 2001;11:7–12.

100. Heaton-Jones, TG, Ko, J, Heaton-Jones, DL. Evaluation of medetomidine-ketamine anesthesia with atipamezole reversal in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2002;33:36–44.

101. Helmick, KE, Bennett, A, Ginn, P, et al. Intestinal volvulus and stricture associated with a leiomyoma in a green turtle (Chelonia mydas). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2000;31:221–227.

102. Helmick, KE, Papich, MG, Vliet, KA, et al. Pharmacokinetic disposition of a long-acting oxytetracycline formulation after single-dose intravenous and intramuscular administration in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2004;35:341–346.

103. Helmick, KE, Papich, MG, Vliet, KA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after single-dose and intravenous administration in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Zoo Wildl Med. 2004;35:333–340.

104. Hernandez-Divers, SJ. Pulmonary candidiasis caused by Candida albicans in a Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) and treatment with intrapulmonary amphotericin B. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2001;32:352–359.

105. Hernandez-Divers, SJ. Diagnosis and surgical repair of stifle luxation in a spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2002;33:125–130.

106. Hernandez-Divers, SJ, MacDonald, J. Diagnosis and surgical treatment of thyroid adenoma-induced hyperthyroidism in a green iguana (Iguana iguana). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2001;32:465–475.

107. Hernandez-Divers, SM. Reptile critical care. Exotic DVM. 2003;5(3):81–87.

108. Hilf, M, Swanson, D, Wagner, R, et al. A new dosing schedule for gentamicin in blood pythons (Python curtus): a pharmacokinetic study. Res Vet Sci. 1991;50:127–130.

109. Hilf, M, Swanson, D, Wagner, R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of piperacillin in blood pythons (Python curtus) and in vitro evaluation of efficacy against aerobic gram-negative bacteria. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1991;22:199–203.

110. Holz, P, Holz, RM. Evaluation of ketamine, ketamine/xylazine, and ketamine/midazolam anesthesia in red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1994;25:531–537.

111. Holz, PH, Burger, JP, Pasloske, K, et al. Effect of injection site on carbenicillin pharmacokinetics in the carpet python, Morelia spilota. J Herp Med Surg. 2002;12:12–16.

112. Hungerford, C, Spelman, L, Papich, M. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after oral and intramuscular administration in savanna monitors (Varanus exanthematicus). Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1997:89–92.

113. Innis, C. IME—Per-cloacal worming of tortoises. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1995;5:4.

114. Innis, CJ, Boyer, TH. Chelonian reproductive disorders. Vet Clin North Am:Exotic Anim Pract. 2002;5:555–578.

115. International Species Information System (ISIS), Apple Valley, MN. www.isis.org, 2002.

116. Jackson, OF. Chelonians. In: Beynon PH, Cooper JE, eds. BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. Gloucestershire, England: British Small Animal Veterinary Association; 1991:221–243.

117. Jacobson, ER. Evaluation of the reptile patient. In: Jacobson ER, Kollias GV, Jr., eds. Exotic Animals. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1988:1–18.

118. Jacobson, ER. Use of chemotherapeutics in reptile medicine. In: Jacobson ER, Kollias GV, Jr., eds. Exotic Animals. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1988:35–48.

119. Jacobson, ER. Antimicrobial drug use in reptiles. In: Prescott JF, Baggot JD, eds. Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine. Ames, IA: Iowa State University; 1993:543–552.

120. Jacobson, ER. Snakes. Vet Clin North Am: Small Anim Pract. 1993;23:1179–1212.

121. Jacobson, ER. Use of antimicrobial therapy in reptiles. In: Antimicrobial Therapy in Caged Birds and Exotic Pets. Trenton, NJ: Veterinary Learning Systems; 1995:28–37.

122. Jacobson, ER. Bacterial infections and antimicrobial treatment in reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:771–774.

123. Jacobson, ER. Use of antimicrobial drugs in reptiles. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999:190–200.

124. Jacobson, ER, Brown, MP, Chung, M, et al. Serum concentration and disposition kinetics of gentamicin and amikacin in juvenile American alligators. J Zoo Anim Med. 1988;19:188–194.

125. Jacobson, E, Harman, G, Laille, E, et al. Plasma concentrations of praziquantel in loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, following oral administration of single and multiple doses. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2002:37–39.

126. Jacobson, E, Kollias, GV, Jr., Peters, LJ. Dosages for antibiotics and parasiticides used in exotic animals. Compend Cont Educ Pract Vet. 1983;5:315–324.

127. Jarchow, JL. Hospital care of the reptile patient. In: Jacobson ER, Kollias GV, Jr., eds. Exotic Animals. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1988:19–34.

128. Jenkins, JR. A formulary for reptile and amphibian medicine. In: Proc Fourth Annu Avian/Exotic Anim Med Symp. Davis, CA: University of California; 1991:24–27.

129. Jenkins, JR. Medical management of reptile patients. Compend Cont Educ Pract Vet. 1991;13:980–988.

130. Jenkins, JR. Diagnostic and clinical techniques. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:272–274.

131. Jenkins, JR. Husbandry and diseases of Old World chameleons. J Small Exotic Anim Med. 1992;1:145–192.

132. Johnson, JD, Mangone, B, Jarchow, JL. A review of mycoplasmosis infections in tortoises and options for treatment. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:89–92.

133. Johnson, JH. Anesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia of reptiles and amphibians. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1991:132–138.

134. Johnson, JH. Clinical pharmacology of reptiles. In: Proc Symp Rept Med. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University; 1995:90–91.

135. Johnson, JH, Benson, PA. Laboratory reference values for a group of captive ball pythons (Python regius). Am J Vet Res. 1996;57:1304–1307.

136. Kaufman, GE, Seymour, RE, Bonner, BB, et al. Use of rocuronium for endotracheal intubation of North American Gulf Coast box turtles. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003;222:1111–1115.

137. Klingenberg, RJ. Understanding Reptile Parasites. Lakeside, CA: Advanced Vivarium Systems, 1993.

138. Klingenberg, RJ. The box turtle: a practitioner’s approach. Proc Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1996:37–39.

139. Klingenberg, RJ. Management of the anorectic ball python. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1996:830.

140. Klingenberg, RJ. New perspectives on reptile anthelmintics, insecticides and parasiticides. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1996:831–832.

141. Klingenberg, RJ. Parasitology for the practitioner. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1996:826–827.

142. Klingenberg, RJ. Therapeutics. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:299–321.

143. Klingenberg, RJ. Reptiles. In: Aiello SE, ed. The Merck Veterinary Manual. ed 8. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck; 1998:1402–1421.

144. Klingenberg, RJ. Treating coccidia in reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:779.

145. Klingenberg, RJ. Diagnosing parasites of Old World chameleons. Exotic DVM. 2000;1(6):17–21.

146. Koelle, P. Urinalysis in tortoises. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2000:111–113.

147. Koelle, P. Efficacy of allopurinol in European tortoises with hyperuricemia. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2001:185–186.

148. Kolmstetter, CM, Frazier, D, Cox, S, et al. Pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in the yellow rat snake, Elaphe obsoleta quadrivitatta. J Herp Med Surg. 2001;11:4–8.

149. Kolmstetter, CM, Frazier, D, Cox, S, et al. Pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in the green iguana, Iguana iguana. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998;8:4–7.

150. Kopplin, RP, Tarr, RS, Iverson, CNM. Serum profile of the iguanid lizard (Dipsosaurus dorsalis). J Zoo Anim Med. 1983;14:30–32.

151. Lawrence, K, Muggleton, PW, Needham, JR. Preliminary study on the use of ceftazidime, a broad spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic, in snakes. Res Vet Sci. 1984;36:16–20.

152. Lawrence, K, Needham, JR, Palmer, GH, et al. A preliminary study on the use of carbenicillin in snakes. J Vet Pharmacol Therapeut. 1984;7:119–124.

153. Lawrence, K, Palmer, GH, Needham, JR. Use of carbenicillin in 2 species of tortoise (Testudo graeca and T hermanni). Res Vet Sci. 1986;40:413–415.

154. Lawton, MPC. Anaesthesia. In: Beynon PH, Lawton MPC, Cooper JE, eds. Manual of Reptiles. Ames, IA: Iowa State University; 1992:170–183.

155. Lawton, MPC. Pain management after surgery. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:782.

156. Lightfoot, T. Nebulization therapy in tortoise pneumonia. Exotic DVM. 2001;2(6):5.

157. Lloyd, ML. Reptilian dystocias review—causes, prevention, management and comments on the synthetic hormone vasotocin. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1990:290–296.

158. Lloyd, ML. Crocodilian anesthesia. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999:205–216.

159. Lloyd, ML, Reichard, T, Odum, RA. Gallamine reversal in Cuban crocodiles (Crocodilus rhombifer) using neostigmine alone versus neostigmine with hyaluronidase. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1994:117–120.

160. Lock, BA, Heard, DJ, Dennis, P. Preliminary evaluation of medetomidine/ketamine combinations for immobilization and reversal with atipamezole in three tortoise species. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998;8:6–9.

161. Mader, DR. IME—Use of calcitonin in green iguanas, Iguana iguana, with metabolic bone disease. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1993;3:5.

162. Mader DR. Personal communication. 2004.

163. Mader, DR. Gout. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:374–379.

164. Mader, DR. Reproductive surgery in the green iguana. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1996;5:214–221.

165. Mader, DR. Specific diseases and conditions. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:341–346.

166. Mader, DR. Antibiotic therapy in reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:791–792.

167. Mader, DR. Common bacterial disease and antibiotic therapy in reptiles. Suppl Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet. 1998;20:23–33.

168. Mader, DR. Understanding local analgesics: practical use in the green iguana, Iguana iguana. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:7–10.

169. Mader, DR. Understanding thermal burns in reptile patients. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:143–147.

170. Mader, DR, Conzelman, GM, Baggot, JD. Effects of ambient temperature on the half-life and dosage regimen of amikacin in the gopher snake. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1985;187:1134–1136.

171. Mader, DR, Horvath, CC, Paul-Murphy, J. The hematocrit and serum profile of the gopher snake (Pituophis melanoleucas catenifer). J Zoo Anim Med. 1985;16:139–140.

172. Mader, DR, Palazzolo, C, Common reptile parasites not always easy to treat. Vet Prod News. 1995(Jan):32–33.

173. Mallo, KM, Harms, CA, Lewbart, GA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and subcutaneous injections, and multiple subcutaneous injections. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2002;33:29–35.

174. Manire, CA, Rhinehart, HL, Pennick, GJ, et al. Steady-state plasma concentrations of itraconazole after oral administration in Kemp’s Ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys kempi. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2003;34:171–178.

175. Marks, SK, Citino, SB. Hematology and serum chemistry of the radiated tortoise (Testudo radiata). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1990;21:342–344.

176. Mautino, M, Page, CD. Biology and medicine of turtles and tortoises. Vet Clin North Am: Small Anim Pract. 1993;23:1251–1270.

177. Maxwell, LK, Jacobson, ER. Preliminary single-dose pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after oral and intramuscular administration in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1997:25.

178. McArthur, SD, Wilkinson, RJ, Barrows, MG. Meredith A, Redrobe S, eds. BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. ed 4. Gloucestershire, England: British Small Animal Veterinary Association; 2002:211–222.

179. McCracken, HE. Periodontal disease in lizards. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999:252–257.

180. McDaniel, RC, Grunow, WA, Daly, JJ, et al. Serum chemistry of the diamond-backed water snake (Nerodia rhombifera rhombifera) in Arkansas. J Wildl Dis. 1984;20:44–46.

181. McFarlen, J. Commonly occurring reptilian intestinal parasites. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1991:120–127.

182. McKeown, S. General husbandry and management. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:9–19.

183. Messonnier, SP. Common Reptile Diseases and Treatment. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Science, 1996.

184. Messonnier, S. Formulary for exotic pets. Vet Forum. 1996;Aug:46–49.

185. Meyer, J. Gastrographin as a gastrointestinal contrast agent in the Greek tortoise (Testudo hermanni). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1998;29:183–189.

186. Miller, HA, Brandt, PJ, Frye, FL, et al. Trichomonas associated with ocular and subcutaneous lesions in geckos. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet/Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1994:102–107.

187. Millichamp, NJ. Surgical techniques in reptiles. In: Jacobson ER, Kollias GV, Jr., eds. Exotic Animals. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1988:49–74.

188. Mitruka, BM, Rawnsley, HM. Clinical, Biochemical, and Hematological Reference Values in Normal Experimental Animals and Normal Humans, ed 2. New York: Masson, 1981.

189. Morgan-Davies, AM. Immobilization of the Nile crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) with gallamine triethiodide. J Zoo Anim Med. 1980;11:85–87.

190. Murray, MJ. Pneumonia and normal respiratory function. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:396–405.

191. Nevarez, JG, Mitchell, MA, Le Blanc, C, et al. Determination of plasma biochemistries, ionized calcium, vitamin D₃, and hematocrit values in captive green iguanas (Iguana iguana) from El Salvador. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2002:87–91.

192. Nichols, DK, Lamirande, EW. Use of methohexital sodium as an anesthetic in two species of colubrid snakes. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet/Am Assoc of Zoo Vet. 1994:161–162.

193. Norton, TM, Jacobson, ER, Caligiuri, R, et al. Medical management of a Galapagos tortoise (Geochelone elephantopus) with hypothyroidism. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1989;20:212–216.

194. Norton, TM, Spratt, J, Behler, J, et al. Medetomidine and ketamine anesthesia with atipamezole reversal in private free-ranging gopher tortoises, Gopherus polyphemus. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:25–27.

195. Oppenheim, YC, Moon, PF. Sedative effects of midazolam in red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1995;26:409–413.

196. Origgi, FC, Jacobson, ER. Diseases of the respiratory tract of chelonians. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 2000;3:537–549.

197. Pace, L, Mader, D. Atropine and glycopyrrolate, route of administration and response in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 2002:79–84.

198. Page, CD. Current reptilian anesthesia procedures. In: Fowler ME, ed. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1993:140–143.

199. Page, CD, Mautino, M. Clinical management of tortoises. Compend Cont Educ Pract Vet. 1990;12:79–85.

200. Page, CD, Mautino, M, Derendorf, H, et al. Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of ketoconazole administered orally to gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1991;22:191–198.

201. Palika, L. The Consumer’s Guide to Feeding Reptiles. New York: Macmillan Company, 1997.

202. ParéAae, JA, Crawshaw, GJ, Barta, JR. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in gila monsters (Heloderma suspectum) with paromycin. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1997:23.

203. Pokras, MA, Sedgwick, CJ, Kaufman, GE. Therapeutics. In: Beynon PH, Lawton MPC, Cooper JE, eds. Manual of Reptiles. Ames, IA: Iowa State University; 1992:194–206.

204. Prezant, RM, Jarchow, JL. Lactated fluid use in reptiles: is there a better solution? Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1997:83–87.

205. Prezant, RM, Isaza, R, Jacobson, ER. Plasma concentrations and disposition kinetics of enrofloxacin in gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1994;25:82–87.

206. Pye, GW, Carpenter, JW. Ketamine sedation followed by propofol anesthesia in a slider, Trachemys scripta, to facilitate removal of an esophageal foreign body. Bull Assoc Amph Rept Vet. 1998;8:16–17.

207. Raiti, P. Veterinary care of the common kingsnake, Lampropeltis getula. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1995;5:11–18.

208. Raiti, P. Stuck! Reproductive problems of pet snakes. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:795–796.

209. Raiti, P. Administration of aerosolized antibiotics to reptiles. Exotic DVM. 2002;4(3):87–90.

210. Raiti, P. Snakes. In: Meredith A, Redrobe S, eds. BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. ed 4. Gloucester, England: British Small Animal Veterinary Association; 2002:244–256.

211. Ramsey, EC, Dotson, TK. Tissue and serum enzyme activities in the yellow rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata). Am J Vet Res. 1995;56:423–428.

212. Raphael, BL. Chelonians (turtles, tortoises). In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. ed 5. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2003:48–58.

213. Raphael, B, Clark, CH, Hudson, R, Jr. Plasma concentrations of gentamicin in turtles. J Zoo Anim Med. 1985;16:136–139.

214. Raphael, BL, Papich, M, Cook, RA. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after a single intramuscular injection in Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1994;25:88–94.

215. Redrobe, S, MacDonald, J. Sample collection and clinical pathology of reptiles. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Animal Pract. 1999;2:709–730.

216. Rooney, MB, Levine, G, Gaynor, J, et al. Sevoflurane anesthesia in desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1999;30:64–69.

217. Rosenthal, K. Chemotherapeutic treatment of a sarcoma in a corn snake. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet/Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1994:46.

218. Rosenthal, K, Divers, SJ, Donoghue, S, et al. Renal disease. J Herp Med Surg. 2000;10:34–41.

219. Rossi, J. Practical reptile dermatology. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1995:648–649.

220. Rossi, JV. Emergency medicine of reptiles. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:799–801.

221. Rossi, JV. Practical iguana psychology. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:798–799.

222. Rosskopf, WJ, Jr., Normal hemogram and blood chemistry values for California desert tortoises. Vet Med: Small Anim Clin. 1982(Jan):85–87.

223. Rosskopf, WJ, Jr., Woerpel, RW, Yanoff, SR. Normal hemogram and blood chemistry values for boa constrictors and pythons. Vet Med: Small Anim Clin. 1982;May:822–823.

224. Samour, JH, Hawkey, CM, Pugsley, S, et al. Clinical and pathological findings related to malnutrition and husbandry in captive giant tortoises (Geochelone species). Vet Rec. 1986;Mar 15:299–302.

225. Schaeffer, DO. Anesthesia and analgesia in nontraditional laboratory animal species. In: Kohn DF, Wixson SK, White WJ, et al, eds. Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals. New York: Academic Press; 1997:338–378.

226. Schobert, E. Telazol use in wild and exotic animals. Vet Med. 1987;82:1080–1088.

227. Schumacher, J. Reptiles and amphibians. In: Thurman JC, Tranquilli WJ, Benson GJ, eds. Lumb and Jones’ Veterinary Anesthesia. ed 3. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996:670–685.

228. Schumacher, J. Respiratory diseases of reptiles. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1997;6:209–215.

229. Scott, BW. Nutritional diseases. In: Beynon PH, Lawton MPC, Cooper JE, eds. Manual of Reptiles. Ames, IA: Iowa State University; 1992:138–152.

230. Sleeman, JM, Gaynor, J. Sedative and cardiopulmonary effects of medetomidine and reversal with atipamezole in desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2000;31:28–35.

231. Smith, DA, Barker, IK, Allen, OB. The effect of certain topical medications on healing of cutaneous wounds in the common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). Can J Vet Res. 1988;52:129–133.

232. Smith, JA, McGuire, NC, Mitchell, MA. Cardiopulmonary physiology and anesthesia in crocodilians. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1998:17–21.

233. Speroni JA, Giambeluca L, Errecalde EO. Farmacocinetica de cefoperazona tras su administracion intramuscular a Tupinambis teguixin (Sauria, Teidae). AHA Comm Meeting, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1989.

234. Spiegel, RA, Lane, TJ, Larsen, RE, et al. Diazepam and succinylcholine chloride for restraint of the American alligator. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1984;185:1335–1336.

235. Spörle H, Gobel T, Schildger B. Blood-levels of some anti-infectives in the Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni). 4th Internat Colloquium Path Med Rept Amph, Germany, 1991.

236. Stahl, SJ. Osteomyelitis in lizards and snakes. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1997:759–760.

237. Stahl, SJ. Treatment and management of mites in snakes and lizards. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1997:757–758.

238. Stahl, SJ. Common diseases of the green iguana. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:806–809.

239. Stahl, SJ. Common medical problems of Old World chameleons. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:814–817.

240. Stahl, SJ. Reproductive disorders of the green iguana. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1998:810–813.

241. Stahl, SJ. Medical management of bearded dragons. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1999:789–792.

242. Stahl, SJ. Diseases of the reptile pancreas. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract. 2003;6:191–212.

243. Stahl, S, Donoghue, S. Pharyngostomy tube placement, management and use for nutritional support in the chelonian patient. Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1997:93–97.

244. Stamper, MA, Papich, MG, Lewbart, GA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ceftazidime in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and intramuscular injections. J Zoo Wildl Med. 1999;30:32–35.

245. Stein, G. Hematologic and blood chemistry values in reptiles. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:473–483.

246. Stein, G. Reptile and amphibian formulary. In: Mader DR, ed. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996:465–472.

247. Stirl, R, Krug, P, Bonath, KH. Tiletamine/zolazepam sedation in boa constrictors and its influence on respiration, circulation and metabolism. Proc Euro Assoc Zoo Wildl Vet. 1996:115–119.

248. Suedmeyer, WK. Iron deficiency in a group of American alligators: diagnosis and treatment. J Small Exotic Anim Med. 1991;1:69–72.

249. Taylor, RW, Jr., Jacobson, ER, Hematology and serum chemistry of the gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus. Comp Biochem Physiol. 1982(72A):425–428.

250. Teare, JA, Bush, M. Toxicity and efficacy of ivermectin in chelonians. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1983;183:1195–1197.

251. Tothill, A, Johnson, J, Branvold, H, et al. Effect of cisapride, erythromycin, and metoclopramide on gastrointestinal transit time in the desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii. J Herp Med Surg. 2000;10:16–20.

252. Whitaker, BR, Krum, H. Medical management of sea turtles in aquaria. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999:217–231.

253. Willette-Frahm, M, Wright, KM, Thode, BC. Select protozoal diseases in amphibians and reptiles: a report for the Infectious Diseases Committee, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1995;5:19–29.

254. Wilson, SC, Carpenter, JW. Endoparasitic diseases of reptiles. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1996;5:64–74.

255. Wimsatt, J, Johnson, J, Mangone, BA, et al. Clarithromycin pharmacokinetics in the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1999;30:36–43.

256. Wissman, MA, Parsons, B. Dermatophytosis of green iguanas (Iguana iguana). J Small Exotic Anim Med. 1993;2:133–136.

257. Wood, FE, Critchley, KH, Wood, JR. Anesthesia in the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas. Am J Vet Res. 1982;43:1882.

258. Wright, KM. Common medical problems of tortoises. Proc North Am Vet Conf. 1997:769–771.

259. Wright, KM, Skeba, S. Hematology and plasma chemistries of captive prehensile-tailed skinks (Corucia zebrata). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1992;23:429–432.

260. Wright, K. Omphalectomy of reptiles. Exotic DVM. 2001;3(1):11–15.

261. Young, LA, Schumacher, J, Jacobson, ER, et al. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in juvenile Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus). Proc Assoc Rept Amph Vet/Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1994:97.