Birds

Christal Pollock, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian), James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM and Natalie Antinoff, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian)

TABLE 19

Antimicrobial agents used in birds.^a

^a Most drug doses used in birds should be considered experimental. Patients should be monitored for adverse effects and treatment failure.¹⁷⁷

^b Ley D. Personal communication. 1997.

TABLE 20

Antifungal agents used in birds.^a

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Voriconazole (Vfend, Pfizer)	10 mg/kg PO q12h³⁴¹	Cockatiel/aspergillosis; use in one case showed initial response to treatment; used in conjunction with amphotericin; further use in birds needs to be evaluated; expensive

^aProphylactic use of antifungal agents may be indicated in newly captured or admitted birds of susceptible species and in birds undergoing change of management or transfer of enclosure.⁵⁰⁴

TABLE 21

Antiviral and immunomodulating agents used in birds.

TABLE 22

Antiparasitic agents used in birds.

TABLE 23

Chemical restraint/anesthetic/analgesic agents used in birds.^a^,^b

^a For other analgesic recommendations, refer to Tables 24 (hormones and steroids) and 25 (nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents).

^b The anesthetic agents of choice in most avian species are the inhalent agents, isoflurane and sevoflurane.

^c All opioid agonists and agonist-antagonists may cause respiratory depression; profound bradypnea may occur with potent opioid agonists.

TABLE 24

Hormones and steroids used in birds.

Administration may also be associated with the development of polyuria/polydypsia/polyphagia, increased protein catabolism, glucosuria, and diabetes mellitus.

Toxic levels may be attained even with topical application.²⁵⁷ Administration should ideally not exceed 5 days. Alternate-day application of topical corticosteroids at double the daily dose is recommended if the drugs must be given long term. Rapid onset, shorter-acting drugs are generally less likely to cause serious adverse effects.²⁵⁸

^a Steroid administration may predispose birds to aspergillosis and other mycoses.²⁷⁰

TABLE 25

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents used in birds.^a^,^b

^a Unless otherwise noted, drugs provide analgesic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory effects.

^b Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents may potentially cause gastrointestinal upset and hemorrhage as well as adverse renal effects ranging from fluid retention to renal failure.

^c Rosenthal K. Personal communication. 2004.

TABLE 26

Nebulization agents used in birds.^a

^a Nebulization is an adjunctive therapy indicated for rhinitis, sinusitis, tracheitis, pneumonia, airsacculitis, and syringeal aspergilloma. Optimal particle size for deposition in the trachea is 2–10 μm. Optimal particle size for peripheral airways is 0.5–5.0 μm. Treatments of 30–45 min repeated every 4–12 hr are recommended. Caution: do not overhydrate airways and flood the respiratory tract.⁵⁵

TABLE 27

Agents used in the treatment of toxicologic conditions of birds.

^a Cathartics increase gastrointestinal motility and are used to evacuate the gut and prevent absorption of toxins.

TABLE 28

Psychotropic agents used in birds.^a

^a The use of psychotropic agents in birds is controversial because safety, efficacy, and pharmacologic effects are poorly documented. Anxiolytics or tricyclic antidepressants may be useful for stereotypic behaviors or mutilation. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may prove helpful for explosive behaviors.⁴⁵⁷ Consider metabolic scaling when calculating dosages. Treatment should always include behavioral and environmental modification.

TABLE 29

Nutritional/mineral support used in birds.

^a Grains and seeds commonly fed to parrots contain calcium levels of approximately 0.02%-0.1% DM.

^b Food items known to contain appreciable amounts of thiaminase include clams, herring, smelt, and mackerel.⁴²

TABLE 30

Ophthalmologic agents used in birds.^a

^a Variable amounts of skeletal muscle are present in the avian iris, giving birds voluntary control over pupil dilation. In many avian patients, the pupils are best dilated by restraining the animal in a dark room.

TABLE 31

Oncologic agents used in birds.

0.5 kg = 0.06 m²

1.0 kg = 0.10 m²

2.0 kg = 0.15 m²

3.0 kg = 0.20 m²

4.0 kg = 0.25 m²

5.0 kg = 0.29 m²

^a Body weight (kg) = surface area (m²)

TABLE 32

Antimicrobial-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) agents used in birds.^a^,^{160,385,595,637}

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Itraconazole (Sporanox, Janssen)	16% intraconazole-impregnated PMMA fed as grit stones⁵⁸³	Indian peafowl/PD; antifungal agent; when used as grit, therapeutic levels achieved in 2 days and decreased over 7 days; beads from capsules mix into PMMA uniformly before hardening; PMMA cut into 1-g size pieces (grit stone size) after hardening
Oxytetracycline (Liquamycin, Rogar/STC)	4.5 ml of 200 mg/ml solution in 20 g polymer powder⁶³⁷	Raptors/pododermatitis
Rifampicin (R) (Rimactane, Ciba)/pefloxacin (P) (Pelwin, 5% soluble powder, Wockhardt)	1 part (R) + 1 part (P) finely ground in equal volumes in a mortar and pestle; thoroughly mix with 5 parts PMMA powder⁵¹⁵	Rifampicin powder taken from oral capsules; pefloxacin powder obtained from the preparation intended for oral use in poultry
Rifampicin (R) (Rimactane, Ciba)/piperacillin (P) (Piperacil, Lederle)	1 part (R) +1 part (P) combined and finely ground in a mortar and pestle; thoroughly mix with 5 parts PMMA powder⁵¹⁵	Rifampicin powder taken from oral capsules; piperacillin powder taken from parenteral preparation before reconstitution

• Choose antibiotic based on culture and sensitivity.

• Mix 1–2 g of sterile antibiotic powder with 40–60 g of PMMA powder. Add approximately 2 Tbs to antibiotic at a time. The use of liquid antibiotic reduces the mechanical strength of the bead.

• Shake mixture well (for at least 2 min) to make it homogeneous.

• Add liquid monomer as usual.

• The dough is placed in a catheter tip syringe and extruded, rolled into beads, and placed onto steel surgical wire. Dough may also be injected into a red rubber catheter that may be cut into variable sizes. The smaller the bead, the greater the elution of antibiotic.

• Gas sterilization is recommended; beads are aerated for at least 24 hr at room temperature.

• The wound is aggressively debrided and beads are placed within it; the wound is then closed and the beads are left within the site until the wound is no longer infected.^595,637

• In human medicine, beads are removed after 2–6 wk. Despite their antibiotic release, beads act as a surface to which bacteria preferentially adhere, grow and potentially develop antibiotic resistance.⁴³⁸ Beads are difficult to remove if left in place for more than 14 days.⁴⁶⁰

• Discard unused beads after 2 mo.⁵¹⁵

^aAntimicrobial-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate is used to elute antimicrobial agents for long-term treatment of infected lesions. Following are guidelines for its use and preparation:

TABLE 33

Agents used in the treatment of oiled birds.⁴¹²

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Bismuth subsalicylate	2–5 mg/kg PO once	Adsorbent; gavage; alternatively, can use activated charcoal
Charcoal, activated (Toxiban, Vet-A-Mix)	52 mg/kg PO once	Adsorbent; gavage; alternatively, can use bismuth subsalicylate
Detergent (Dawn, Procter & Gamble)	1%-5% bath	Submerse bird up to mid-neck region; rinse with water; use water at 103° F–105° F (39° C–41° C) and 40–60 psi
Fluid therapy	—	See Appendixes 33 and 34 for guidelines
Iron dextran	10 mg/kg IM q5–7d	If PCV < 25%
Vitamin B₁ (thiamine)	25–30 mg/kg feed fish	Piscivores

psi, Pounds per square inch.

TABLE 34

Agents used in bird emergencies.

^a Because of the presence of peripheral vasoconstriction, subcutaneous administration is not adequate for patients in shock.

TABLE 35

Euthanasia agents used in birds.^a

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)	70%⁵⁵³	Most species/danger to person administering gas; compressed gas is the only recommended source¹⁵
Carbon monoxide (CO)	Minimum 6% concentration in a closed container⁵⁵³	Most species/unconsciousness occurs rapidly; inexpensive⁴²¹; danger to person administering gas; compressed gas recommended
Halothane (Halothane, Rhône Meriéux; Fluothane, Fort Dodge)	Saturated cotton ball in closed container or face mask^481,553	Most species/very rapid induction; wing flapping and vocalizing may occur
Isoflurane (Aerrane, Anaquest)	Saturated cotton ball in closed container or face mask^481,553	Most species/very rapid induction; wing flapping and vocalizing may occur
Methoxyflurane (Metofane, Schering)	Saturated cotton ball in closed container or face mask^481,553	Most species/induction may be slower than with halothane or isoflurane
Pentobarbital sodium (Beuthanasia-D solution, Schering)	0.2–1.0 ml/kg IV, ICe^476,538	Most species/birds may react unpredictably with IV administration; ICe administration is smooth, quiet
Potassium chloride	1–2 mmol/kg¹⁵	Must be provided in conjunction with prior general anesthesia

^aThe American Veterinary Medical Association accepts inhalant anesthetic overdose, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and barbiturate overdose as humane euthanasia methods.⁵⁵³ Cervical dislocation and decapitation are conditionally acceptable for research and poultry. Pithing should be used as an adjunctive procedure to ensure death in an animal already rendered unconscious by another method.¹⁵

TABLE 36

Miscellaneous agents used in birds.

^a Many topical agents contain oils that adhere to plumage. These agents should be used sparingly and generally in nonfeathered regions to prevent losing the insulative properties of the plumage.

^b Sander JE. Personal communication. 1996.

APPENDIX 16

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of selected psittacines.^a

^a Hematologically, the psittacines are a very homogenous group, only small differences are appreciated between species.⁴⁷⁹

APPENDIX 17

Hematologic and serum biochemical values for juveniles of selected psittacines.

n, Number of blood samples (multiple blood samples were obtained from some individuals over time).

APPENDIX 18

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of selected Passeriformes.

APPENDIX 19

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of selected Galliformes.

APPENDIX 20

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of selected Anseriformes (waterfowl) and Columbiformes.

APPENDIX 21

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of selected Piciformes and ratites.

APPENDIX 22

Hematologic and serum biochemical values of selected raptors.

APPENDIX 23

Biologic and physiologic values of selected avian species.^a^,^{10,24,98,99,137,194,195,241,243,293,323,432,525,588,629}

^a Guidelines only. Data vary between references.

^b Brotogeris parakeets, 22; Psittacula parakeets, 23–26; Quaker parakeet, 23; Pionus parrot, 25–26; Senegal parrot, 24–25.

^c Princess of Wales parakeet, 108 (102–129); kakariki parakeet, 56 (35–43); red-rumped parakeet, 65 (62–69); Bourke’s parakeet, 40 (35–43).

^d Congo, 28; Timneh, 26.

^e Yellow-naped, yellow-fronted, yellow-crowned, double yellow-headed, 28–29; green-cheeked, blue-fronted, 26; spectacled (white-fronted), 24.

^f Blue-crowned, 740 (618–998); blue-fronted, 432 (361–485); Mexican red-headed, 360 (343–377); yellow-naped, 596 (476–795); double yellow-headed, 568 (463–694).

^g Bare-eyed, 331; greater sulphur-crested, 806; Leadbeater’s (Major Mitchell’s), 423 (381–474); lesser sulphur-crested, 303; Moluccan, 808; rose-breasted, 299; triton, 559; umbrella, 552.

^h Bare-eyed, 23–24; citron-crested, 25–26; greater sulphur-crested, 27–28; Leadbeater’s, 26; lesser sulphur-crested, 24–25; Moluccan, 28–29; palm, 28–30; triton, 27–28; umbrella, 28.

ⁱ Nanday, 21–23 (25); Patagonian, 24–25; sun, 27–28; blue-crowned, 23–24; orange-fronted, 30.

^j Queen of Bavaria, 262 (252–276).

^k Scarlet, 1103; blue and gold, 1021; green-winged, 1179; military, 788; hyacinth, 1355 (1197–1466); red-fronted, 458.

APPENDIX 24

Biologic and physiologic values of selected Anseriformes (waterfowl) species.¹⁹⁴

APPENDIX 25

Biologic and physiologic values of selected raptors.^43,86

APPENDIX 26

Quick reference to abnormalities of the standard avian hematology profile.^204,483

APPENDIX 27

Quick reference to abnormalities of the standard avian biochemical profile.^a^,^{202,241,301,373}

^a The ranges given are not absolute and are to be used as a guide for interpretation of a wide range of avian species.

APPENDIX 28

Approximate resting respiratory rates of selected avian species and by weight.^107,194,541

Species	Respiratory Rate (breaths/min)^a
Finch	90–110
Canary	60–80
Budgerigar	60–75
Lovebird	50–60
Cockatiel	40–50
Small conure	40–50
Large conure	30–45
Toucan	15–45
Amazon parrot	15–45
Cockatoo	15–40
Macaw	20–25
Raptor	10–20

Weight (g)	Respiratory Rate (breaths/min)^a
100	40–52
200	35–50
300	30–45
400	25–30
500	20–30
1000	15–20

^aRestraint can increase respiratory rate 1.5–2× resting rate.

APPENDIX 29

T₄ values of selected avian species.^a^,^{293,365,371,617,659}

^a 0.5 μg/dl = 6.5 nmol/L = 5.0 ng/ml²¹⁹ To convert thyroxine from μg/dl to nmol/L multiply by 12.87.³⁷¹

^b T₄ levels will vary with the time of day and year with higher levels measured in the winter. Physiologic states such as molting or reproductive activity may also alter the ratio of T₄ to T₃ released. The half-life of thyroid hormones is much shorter in birds than in mammals, therefore it is difficult to accurately measure single hormone levels.⁴⁰⁶

^c The canine radioimmunoassay kit does not accurately measure total T₄ below 6.5 nmol/L.²¹⁹ Results of high sensitivity total T₄ testing in parrots ranged from 2.0–6.0 nmol/L. This high sensitivity test is available through the University of Tennessee Clinical Endocrinology Laboratory (865–974–5638).²¹⁸

^d Low-dose TSH (0.2 IU/kg).

APPENDIX 30

Urinalysis values in psittacines.^62,206,469

Measurement	Normal Values	Comments
Specific gravity (g/ml)	1.005–1.020	—
pH	6.5–8.0	Laying hens and carnivorous birds may have more acidic urine; cloacal contents may alter urine pH
Protein	Negative to trace	—
Glucose	Negative to trace	—
Ketones	Negative	Ketonuria is sometimes present in migratory birds
Bilirubin	Negative	—
Urobilinogen	Negative	—

APPENDIX 31

Applanation tonometry data for selected raptors.⁵⁸⁵

Species (n)	Intraocular Pressure (mm Hg)
Red-tailed hawk (10)	20.6 (±3.4)
Swainson’s hawk (6)	20.8 (±2.3)
Golden eagle (7)	21.5 (±3.0)
Bald eagle (3)	20.6 (±2.0)
Great horned owl (6)	10.8 (±3.6)

APPENDIX 32 Checklist of supportive care procedures used in companion bird medicine.

Because it is frequently difficult to establish an accurate diagnosis, supportive care is an essential component of companion bird medicine. Supportive care includes:

1. Minimal handling and other stressors

2. Hospitalization

• place patient in a warm, quiet, well-ventilated environment with minimal to no disturbance

• supplemental heat (30° C–32° C; 85° F–90° F)

^ debilitated birds are often hypothermic

3. Fluid therapy (see Appendixes 33 and 34)

4. Corticosteroids (use with caution because of immunosuppressive effects, etc.) in cases of:

• shock and poor vascular perfusion

• extreme stress

• CNS trauma

• selected toxemias and intoxications

5. Vitamin therapy

• multiple vitamins (including vitamin A) as needed

• B complex in selected cases of injury, anorexia, cachexia, CNS disorders, or blood loss

6. Antibiotics (see Table 19)

• to control primary infections and for injured or debilitated birds in which secondary infections may result

7. Iron dextran

• iron deficiency or after hemorrhage

8. Normal photoperiod (or subdued lighting if needed)

9. Oxygen

• dyspnea, hypoxia, or severe pneumonia and airsacculitis

10. Maintaining body weight

• weigh daily if possible

• offer favorite foods and avoid changing diet while ill

11. Gavage (see Appendixes 34–37)

• malnourishment, anorexia, cachexia, and dehydration

• high carbohydrate formula is initially recommended

• high-protein/high-calorie formulas may be used to increase body weight during recovery

APPENDIX 33 Fluid therapy recommendations for birds.

When evaluating a patient for fluid therapy, the following factors should ideally be considered: hydration status, electrolyte balance, acid-base status, hematologic and biochemical values, and caloric balance.

• Warm fluids to 100° F–102° F (38° C–39° C) to help prevent or correct hypothermia.

• Use caution when giving dextrose parenterally; 5% dextrose is a good choice for simple dehydration. However, it can exacerbate problems significantly if used concurrently with significant electrolyte loss.^393,581

• When given orally, dextrose is rapidly absorbed from the intestinal tract without creating an influx of fluid into the intestinal lumen and secondary dehydration.^393,581

• Potassium chloride can be diluted in fluids to correct for potassium depletion based on electrolyte analysis (0.1-0.3 mEq/kg).⁶¹¹

• Hetastarch at 10-15 ml/kg IV q8h for up to 4 treatments or dextrans may be effective for hypoproteinemia. Synthetic colloids should be used with caution in patients with congestive heart failure or renal failure.^418,587

Total parenteral nutrition may also be considered.^127,128

Maintenance and deficit replacement^{270,418,491,542,570}:

• Determine fluid deficit.

Fluid deficit (ml) = body weight (g) × % dehydration

• Determine daily maintenance.

Daily maintenance is estimated at 50 ml (range, 40-60 ml/kg/day) in many avian species. (The smallest passerines drink 250–300 ml/kg daily.³⁸³)

• If possible, replace 50% of the deficit in the first 12–24 hr and the remainder over the next 24-48 hr. Some clinicians recommend replacing 20%-25% of the deficit in the first 4–6 hr and the remaining volume during the next 24–72 hr.

APPENDIX 34

Routes of administration and maximum suggested volumes of fluids that can be administered to psittacines.^240,506,581

^a Combinations of routes (PO, SC, and IO/IV) are recommended if large fluid volumes are administered.

^b Crop volume may be estimated at 5% BW.

^c Volumes of 10–15 ml/kg may be comfortably given per subcutaneous injection site, although up to 25 ml/kg per site may be given. Overdistension of the area may compromise blood supply to the area and reduce absorption.⁵⁸¹

^d Hyaluronidase (Wydase, Wyeth-Ayerst) (1 ml [150 IU]/L fluids) may be used in most species to increase the absorption rate of fluids.³⁰³

APPENDIX 35

Suggested initial to maximum volumes and frequency of gavage feeding in anorectic birds.^491,541

Species	Volume (ml)^a^,^b	Frequency^a
Finch	0.1–0.5	q4h
Budgerigar	0.5–3.0	q6h
Lovebird	1–3	q6h
Cockatiel	1–8	q6h
Small conure	3–12	q6h
Large conure	7–24	q6–8h
Amazon parrot	5–35	q8h
Cockatoo	10–40	q8–12h
Macaw	20–60	q8–12h

^aAdjust volume and frequency as crop accommodates larger volumes.

^bGenerally 3%-5% of body weight.²³⁹

APPENDIX 36

Suggested feeding requirements of a bird in relation to its body weight.⁵⁰⁸

Body Weight (g)	Percentage of Body Weight Required Daily
100–200	18–25
201–800	11–19
801–1200	7–11
4,000–10,000	3.5–6.0

APPENDIX 37 Calculation of enteral feeding requirements for birds.

Please see Appendix 107 regarding calculation of basal metabolic rate (BMR) and maintenance energy requirement (MER). Caloric values for the three food types are:

Protein	4.29 kcal/g
Carbohydrate	4.09 kcal/g
Fat	9.29 kcal/g

Animals are unable to fully use all the calories in these nutrients, but efficiency is estimated between 80%-90% depending on the type of nutrition. Commercial enteral solutions are estimated to have a digestibility of 95%. Some commercially available enteral products are listed below. Each product has varying levels of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and water. Other food sources can be used as long as nutrient levels and digestibility can be determined. Following is an example of a calculation of nutrient requirements based on BMR.

Example: A 250-g lilac-crowned Amazon parrot is debilitated and not eating because of a bacterial infection.

BMR (kcal/day) = κW^0.75

MER (kcal/day) = (1.5 × BMR)

κ = kcal/kg/day constant

(nonpasserines, 78; passerines, 129)

• First calculate MER:

MER = (1.5)(78 kcal/kg/day)(0.250 kg)^0.75 = 41.4 kcal/day

• An adjustment for sepsis is made by multiplying by 1.5 (see Appendix 107):

Sepsis = 1.5 × MER = (1.5)(41.4 kcal/day) = 62.1 kcal/day

• Isocal HCN (2 kcal/ml) is selected as the nutrient source:

Volume of Isocal = (62.1 kcal/day)/(2 kcal/ml) = 31 ml/day

• The average Amazon parrot can be gavaged 2.5% of its body weight:

Volume that can be gavaged = (0.025)(250 g) = 6.25 ml

• Therefore, 31 ml/day of Isocal HCN can be administered by gavage feedings of 6.25 ml q5h. However, this volume may need to be reduced initially depending on the bird’s degree of debilitation.

• Refer to Appendixes 34–36 for suggested volumes and frequency of gavage feeding in anorectic birds.

• Nutrient values for selected nutritional products^324,486

^a Nutrients per 100 kcal energy.

APPENDIX 38 Doxycycline recipes commonly used in psittiacines.^176,484

Medicated water for cockatiels:

1. Mix doxycycline with tap water to a final concentration of 280 mg/L (0.28 mg/ml) with a magnetic stir bar and plate.

2. Prepare daily for 45 days.

3. No calcium supplementation should be provided.

Medicated seed for cockatiels:

1. Combine 60% hulled millet and 40% hulled sunflower seed with 6.25 ml sunflower oil/kg seed. Mix well.

2. Mix doxycycline with seeds at 500 mg/kg wet weight with an electric mixer.

3. Prepare daily for 45 days.

4. No calcium supplements should be provided.

Medicated seed for budgerigar parakeets:

1. Create a 1:4 mixture of hulled oat groat and hulled millet.

2. Mix well.

3. Add approximately 6 ml sunflower oil/kg seed (enough to coat seeds, but not dripping).

4. Mix well.

5. Add the contents of doxycycline hyclate capsules aseptically (300 mg drug/1 kg seed).

6. Prepare daily for 45 days.

7. No calcium supplements should be provided.

APPENDIX 39 Selected sources of formulated and medicated diets for companion and aviary birds.

Harrison’s Bird Diets International^a

7108 Crossroads Blvd., Suite 325

Brentwood, TN 37027

Orders: (800) 346-0269

Support: (800) 745-7329

Fax: (800) 279-5984

Kaytee Products, Inc.

521 Clay St.

P.O. Box 230

Chilton, WI 53014

(414) 849-2321

(800) 669-9580

LaFeber Co^a

24981 N 1400 East Rd.

Cornell, IL 61319

(815) 358-2301

(800) 842-6445

Lakes Unlimited, Inc.^a

639 Stryker Ave.

St Paul, MN 55107

(612) 290-0606

(800) 634-2473

L’Avian Pet Products

Highway 75 South

Stephen, MN 56757

(800) 543-3308

Marion Zoological Scenic Birdfoods

13803 Industrial Park Blvd.

Plymouth, MN 55441

(612) 559-3305

(800) 327-7974

PMI Nutrition International

Mazuri Diets

1401 S. Hanley Rd.

St. Louis, MO 63144

(314) 768-4100

(800) 227-8941

Premium Nutritional Products

ZuPreem Diets

P.O. Box 2094

Mission, KS 66202

(913) 722-6336

(800) 345-4767

Pretty Bird International, Inc.^a

P.O. Box 177

5810 Stacy Trail

Stacy, MN 55079

(651) 462-1799

(800) 356-5020

Rolf C. Hagen Corp.

50 Hampden Rd.

Mansfield, MA 02048

(508) 339-9531

(800) 225-2700

Roudybush Foods^a

3550 Watt Ave., Suite 8

Sacramento, CA 95821

(888) 304-2473

Zeigler Brothers, Inc.^a

P.O. Box 95

Gardners, PA 17324

(717) 677-6181

(800) 841-6800

a Source of medicated feeds.

APPENDIX 40 Selected nutritional recommendations for waterfowl, raptors, and hummingbirds.

WATERFOWL

Geese are browsers; domestic ducks feed on mixed grains and forage. Avoid grains in goslings for the first 4 wk of life. Grit and oyster should be fed ad libitum. Piscivorous birds require higher protein and can be offered trout chow and fish.

• Starter rations (< wk of age): 19%–22% protein³³⁶

• Grower rations: 12%–17%,³³⁶ reduce protein to 14% if angel wing is present in goslings

• Breeder rations: 17%-18% protein, 1–2 wk before laying³³⁶

RAPTORS (FOR DEBILITATED BIRDS)³⁰¹

• Rehydrate: see Appendixes 33 and 34 (fluid therapy)

• Oral supplementation (Ultracal, Meade Johnson) (55 ml/kg/day)

• Ground whole quail (less feet, feathers, gastrointestinal tract)

• Small amounts of quail breast meat soaked with oral electrolytes

• Whole prey after establishing normal gastrointestinal time

• Stomach capacity is approximately 40 ml/kg⁵⁰⁸

HUMMINGBIRD DIET⁶³⁸

180 ml 24% sugar water

1 tsp (4 g) Vital High Nitrogen (Ross Laboratories)

tsp Superpreen vitamins (RHB Laboratories)

tsp Nekton Tonic-I (Nekton)

In captivity, sugar water alone is not sufficient to sustain hummingbirds:

• Insects (e.g., Drosophila fruit fly) may be released into the enclosure.⁴⁵⁶

• Human protein dietary supplement may also be provided (1 envelope of Gevral Protein [Ledderly Labs]/5 L sugar solution) or ensure that commercial products contain adequate protein.

APPENDIX 41 Management of egg retention in birds.^{41,43,58,356,418}

Definitions

• Dystocia—obstruction of the oviduct by the developing egg

• Egg binding—delay in rate of passage of an egg through the oviduct

Etiology—often multifactorial

• Hypocalcemia

• Inadequate nutrition

• Abnormal egg shape or position

• Abnormally large egg

• Inadequately or soft-shelled egg

• Pelvic injury/fracture

• Salpingitis

• Systemic/metabolic disease

• Oviduct scarring from previous dystocia or surgery

• Infection

• Neoplasia

Diagnosis

• History/clinical signs

• Physical examination

• Radiography

• Ultrasonography

Treatment

• Stabilize the patient

^ Administer warmed fluids SC, IV, or IO

^ Dextrose: 50% bolus IV or IO; 2.5% in fluids SC

^ Warm, dark, humidified environment

^ Nutritional support required in most cases

^ Calcium gluconate: 50-100 mg/kg IM or IV (slow)

^ Vitamin D₃: 10,000 IU vitamin A and 1,000 IU vitamin D₃/300 g body weight (Vital E-A+D, Schering)

• Medical management

^ Oxytocin: 5 IU/kg IM, may repeat q30min

^ Prostaglandin E₂: 0.1 ml/100 g intracloacal on uterine sphincter

^ Arginine vasotocin: not commercially available

• Surgical management

^ Attempt after 12–24 hr of medical management unless patient is obstructed

^ General anesthesia must be used

^ Use caution when manipulating egg; do not press cranially when stabilizing the egg because this will compromise respiration

^ Manual expression

• gentle digital pressure to direct egg caudally

• attempt alternate method if oviduct begins to prolapse

^ Cloacal ovocentesis

• 18-gauge needle regardless of size of patient

• visualize egg/oviductal opening using a lubricated speculum or cotton applicators and focal light source

• insert syringe into egg and aspirate contents while manually stabilizing egg

• gently implode egg with digital pressure

• extract fragments with curved hemostats

^ Percutaneous ovocentesis

• 18-gauge needle

• stabilize egg against left side of body

• surgically prepare area

• insert needle and aspirate contents

• gently implode egg with digital pressure

• maintain hydration to promote passage of egg shell fragments

^ Salpingohysterectomy or salpingotomy

APPENDIX 42

Protocols used in treating mycobacteriosis in birds.^a

^a Because of its zoonotic potential, controversy exists on whether to treat pet and aviary birds for Mycobacterium avium. Because M. avium isolates from birds differ from human isolates in antibiotic susceptibility, serovars, and genetic sequencing, pet birds are an unlikely source of M. avium in people (except immunosuppressed individuals). Nevertheless, veterinarians who treat birds with this disease do so at their own risk. The veterinarian should be aware that treatment is often lifelong for the bird, and that treatment does not necessarily prevent shedding.^{38,44,144,347,541,619}

^b Mix into dextrose powder, mixed with a small amount of food.

^c Recommended for use in raptors.

^d Enrofloxacin (15 mg/kg PO q12), clofazimine (6 mg/kg PO q12h), or amikacin IM, IV can be used in lieu of ciprofloxacin with ethambutol, rifabutin, and azithromycin.

APPENDIX 43 Suggested protocols for treating lymphosarcoma, lymphocytic leukemia, and osteosarcoma in birds.

C.O.P. PROTOCOL FOR LYMPHOSARCOMA¹⁹⁹

• Prednisone 25 mg/m² PO q24h

• Cyclophosphamide 200/m² IO q7d

• Vincristine 0.75 mg/m² IO q7d × 3 treatments

• Doxorubicin 30 mg/m² IO q21d

• L-aspariginase 400 IU/kg IM q7d

• Interferon α 15,000 IU/m² SC q2d × 3 treatments

• Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg IO before doxorubicin and L-aspariginase treatments

• Dexamethasone 1 mg/kg IM before doxorubicin and L-aspariginase treatments

PROTOCOL FOR LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA OR LYMPHOSARCOMA^a,⁴³⁹

• Vincristine sulfate 0.5 mg/m² IV initial dose, then 0.75 mg/m² q7d × 3 treatments

• Prednisone 1 mg/454 g PO q12h

• Chlorambucil 1 mg/bird PO 2×/wk

PROTOCOL FOR CUTANEOUS LYMPHOSARCOMA^b⁵²³

• Vincristine 0.1 mg/kg IV q7-14d

• Chlorambucil 2 mg/kg PO 2×/wk

PROTOCOL FOR OSTEOSARCOMA¹³⁹

• Diphenhydramine 30 min before doxorubicin treatment (route not given)

• Doxorubicin 60 mg/m² is diluted in 6 ml sterile saline and administered IV over 30 min in an anesthetized patient via an angiocatheter in the jugular vein q30d

• Do not extravasate doxorubicin; doxorubicin may cause myelosuppression and cardiac toxicity; monitor the CBC

• Electrocardiography during treatment is recommended

a Dosages are for a Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus).

b Procedure was developed for a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva).

APPENDIX 44

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in birds.^a

^a Dose in ml/kg body weight, IV, IO, or IM. If weight is not available, base CPR on approximate weight of species closest in size.

APPENDIX 45

Disinfectants and antiseptics.^a–d^,^85,434,543

B, Bactericidal; T, tuberculocidal; S, sporicidal; V, virucidal; F, fungicidal; P, protozoa; C, chlamydophilocidal.

^a Many of the disinfectants are inactivated by organic material such as dirt or droppings.

^b Fungi are more resistant than non spore-forming bacteria (except mycobacteria); fungi are more susceptible than bacterial spores.

^c Factors contributing to failure of disinfection programs include (1) disinfectant-related (selection ineffective, disinfectant too dilute, insufficient contact time, temperature too low, relative humidity too low for gaseous disinfectants)⁵⁴³ and (2) environmental factors (presence of organic matter, inactivation of quarternary ammonium compounds and biguanides by residual soaps and detergents, incorrect application, inadequate penetration and coverage, interference with quarternary ammonium compounds and biguanides by synthetic materials and plastics).

^d Do not forget the importance of using hot water when disinfecting.

APPENDIX 46

Vaccines used in birds (nonpoultry).^{74,83,236,296,315,377,394,417,448,516,522,530,611,651}

^a Choose subcutaneous injection site carefully in pigeons to avoid bleeding; cranial to thigh or lower third of neck on dorsal midline.^236,628

^b Vaccinating birds during an outbreak may allow humans to theoretically serve as mechanical vectors.⁵¹⁶

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